Differential Diagnoses

Actinic Keratosis

If patient presents with a lump on vermillion border of the lip.
Erythroplasia

Brightly colored, smooth, red patch usually found on floor of the mouth, oropharynx area, and lateral border of the tongue.
Lichen Planus

Bilateral or symmetric reticular changes with or without ulcers and erythema occurring anywhere in the oral cavity.
Lichenoid lesions

A single white reticular and/or raylike patch with erythema and/or ulceration of unknown cause or adjacent to dental material such as amalgam.
Mucosal Candidiasis
Traumatic lesion

Appearing adjacent to a sharp or broken tooth.

Workup

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Media Gallery

Oral squamous cell carcinoma in the most common intraoral site, lateral tongue, initially reported as a chronic leukoplakia, which had become ulcerated and indurated at the time diagnosis was confirmed.
Oral squamous cell carcinoma in the anterior buccal mucosa arising from a chronic candidal-associated leukoplakia. The lesion slowly developed into an indurated lump in a patient with a history of smoking, who thought it was a traumatic lesion.
Cancer developing on the gingiva, misdiagnosed as a pyogenic granuloma.
Cervical lymph node metastasis from oral cancer.
Oral squamous cell carcinoma on the midlateral border of the tongue. Soft to palpation, it serves to illustrate the importance of the differential diagnosis. It was initially misdiagnosed as an allergic reaction (lichenoid lesion) to amalgam
This photo illustrates the importance of a thorough oral examination. Oral squamous cell carcinoma on lateral posterior border of tongue. Notice the ulcer, tender at the time of diagnosis, but not indurated, which was missed by the referral doctor. Oral cancer on the posterior border of the tongue is difficult to see unless the tongue is pulled forward.
Advanced oral squamous cell carcinoma presenting as a large, ulcerated lump on the left anterior and midlateral border of the tongue.

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Table 1. Practical Clinical Tool for Evaluating Oral Mucosal Lesions

Issue		No Serious Concern	Concern: Consider Referral to Specialist if Clinician or Patient Concerned, Especially if Multiple Issues Apply	Serious Concern: Referral to a Specialist
Historical Features	Size	No change	No reduction in size, even after eliminating trauma to lesion after 10-14 days	Increasing size, even after eliminating trauma to lesion after 10-14 days
	Chronology	Lesion heals	No resolution over brief observation period	Rapid symptom onset Solitary lesion or change in one area of lesion Lesion persisting 2-3 weeks or longer Persistent ulceration Persistent swelling Loosening of a tooth Nonhealing tooth extraction socket
	Neurological	None	Lack of pain	Pain Dysphagia Odynophagia Otalgia Numbness/paresthesia Speech or voice change
	Weight	Normal	No weight loss	Weight loss
History	Lifestyle Habits	None	Tobacco consumption mild/moderate Betel quid or khat consumption mild/moderate UV light exposure mild/moderate (lip surface exposure) Late-onset sexual debut (oral sex) Moderate number of lifetime sexual partners	Tobacco consumption high Betel quid or khat consumption high Alcohol consumption high UV light exposure high Early sexual debut Numerous lifetime sexual partners
	Medical History	Clear	Deficiencies of iron or vitamins A, C, or E Fanconi anemia High-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infection Immune defects, including HIV/AIDS or chronic candidosis Medications: Immunosuppressants, antihypertensives Periodontitis, poor hygiene Plummer-Vinson syndrome Scleroderma Xeroderma pigmentosum	Deficiencies of iron or vitamins A, C, or E Fanconi anemia High-risk HPV infection Immune defects, including HIV/AIDS or chronic candidosis Medications: Immunosuppressants, antihypertensives Periodontitis, poor hygiene Plummer-Vinson syndrome Scleroderma Xeroderma pigmentosum
Examination and Imaging	Potentially Malignant Disorder	None	Leukoplakia Lichenoid mucositis (unilateral); Oral lichen planus Oral submucous fibrosis	Erythroplakia Leukoplakia (speckled or verrucous) lichenoid mucositis(unilateral) Oral lichen planus
	Lesion Features	Equivocal	White patch (leukoplakia) Lichenoid mucositis (unilateral) Oral submucous fibrosis	Red patch (erythroplakia) Mixed red and white patch (erythroleukoplakia/speckled leukoplakia) Granular surface Rolled, elevated margins Ulceration Induration
	Cervical Lymph Nodes	No enlargement	Possible enlargement	Enlarged, firm, fixed, nontender, asymmetric
	Imaging	No abnormality	Any bone density change	Poorly defined, uncorticated, irregular radiolucency Lamina dura loss Teeth displaced and/or resorbed Pathological fracture

Table 2. Targeted Therapies for Oral Cancer and Oral Adverse Effects

Therapies	Examples	Adverse effects
Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitors (FDA approved)	Cetuximab	Ulcers
EGFR inhibitors	Panitumumab, erlotinib in combination with gemcitabine	Ulcers
Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors	Deforolimus, rapamycin (sirolimus) and temsirolimus	Ulcers
Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)	Imatinib	Ulcers, dysgeusia
TKIs of PDGF and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)	Sunitinib	Ulcers, dry mouth, dysgeusia
Raf multi-kinase inhibitors	Sorafenib	Dysgeusia

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Author

Chelsia Q Sim, MSc, DDS Consultant, Department of Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, National Dental Centre; Clinical Lecturer, National University of Singapore, Faculty of Dentistry, Singapore

Chelsia Q Sim, MSc, DDS is a member of the following medical societies: Academy of Laser Dentistry, American Academy of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, American Academy of Oral Medicine, American Association for Dental Research, American Dental Association, Singapore Dental Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Francina Lozada-Nur, DDS, MS, MPH Professor Clinical Oral Medicine (Emerita), University of California at San Francisco School of Dentistry

Francina Lozada-Nur, DDS, MS, MPH is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Oral Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

David F Butler, MD Former Section Chief of Dermatology, Central Texas Veterans Healthcare System; Professor of Dermatology, Texas A&M University College of Medicine; Founding Chair, Department of Dermatology, Scott and White Clinic

David F Butler, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Dermatology, Association of Military Dermatologists, Phi Beta Kappa, Texas Dermatological Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

John G Albertini, MD Private Practice, The Skin Surgery Center; Clinical Associate Professor (Volunteer), Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Wake Forest University School of Medicine; Past President, American College of Mohs Surgery

John G Albertini, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology, American College of Mohs Surgery

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: QualDerm Partners; Novascan<br/>Have a 5% or greater equity interest in: QualDerm Partners - North Carolina.

Chief Editor

Dirk M Elston, MD Professor and Chairman, Department of Dermatology and Dermatologic Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina College of Medicine

Dirk M Elston, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Additional Contributors

Crispian Scully, MD, MRCS, PhD, MDS, CBE, FDSRCS(Eng), FDSRCPS, FFDRCSI, FDSRCSE, FRCPath, FMedSci, FHEA, FUCL, FSB, DSc, DChD, DMed(HC), Dr(HC) Emeritus Professor, University College London; Visiting Professor, Universities of Athens, BPP, Edinburgh, Granada, Helsinki and Plymouth

Crispian Scully, MD, MRCS, PhD, MDS, CBE, FDSRCS(Eng), FDSRCPS, FFDRCSI, FDSRCSE, FRCPath, FMedSci, FHEA, FUCL, FSB, DSc, DChD, DMed(HC), Dr(HC) is a member of the following medical societies: Academy of Medical Sciences, British Society for Oral Medicine, European Association for Oral Medicine, International Academy of Oral Oncology, International Association for Dental Research, International Association for Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Kelly M Cordoro, MD Assistant Professor of Clinical Dermatology and Pediatrics, Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Francisco School of Medicine

Kelly M Cordoro, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Dermatology, American Medical Association, Medical Society of Virginia, Society for Pediatric Dermatology, Women's Dermatologic Society, Association of Professors of Dermatology, National Psoriasis Foundation, Dermatology Foundation

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Cancers of the Oral Mucosa Differential Diagnoses

Differential Diagnoses

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