Prevention

Deterrence and prevention of the cutaneous manifestations of hepatitis C virus (HCV) are the same as in acute HCV. The primary concerns are to avoid inoculation of the virus into healthy persons through contaminated blood and organs, to prevent needlestick in at-risk groups (eg, health care workers), and to avoid high-risk behavior (eg, sharing cocaine-snorting straws and contaminated needles in pursuit of addictive drugs); all of these measures markedly reduce the likelihood of HCV infection.

Guidelines

Sterling RK, Bralow S. Extrahepatic manifestations of hepatitis C virus. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2006 Feb. 8(1):53-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Metts J, Carmichael L, Kokor W, Scharffenberg R. Hepatitis C: extrahepatic manifestations. FP Essent. 2014 Dec. 427:32-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kolopp-Sarda MN, Miossec P. Cryoglobulinemic vasculitis: pathophysiological mechanisms and diagnosis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2021 Jan. 33 (1):1-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Fachinelli LR, Silva EC, Figueiredo MG, Possa MS, Pelegrinelli FF, Molina RJ. Hepatitis C and cutaneous alterations. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2012 Dec. 45(6):770-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Akhter A, Said A. Cutaneous manifestations of viral hepatitis. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2015 Feb. 17(2):452. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Handler NS, Handler MZ, Stephany MP, Handler GA, Schwartz RA. Porphyria cutanea tarda: an intriguing genetic disease and marker. Int J Dermatol. 2017 Mar 21. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Satta R, Pes GM, Quarta Colosso BM, Dore MP. Skin manifestations in patients with hepatitis C virus-related chronic liver disease. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2018 Feb 8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Maticic M. Lichen planus in hepatitis C virus infection: an early marker that may save lives. Acta Dermatovenerol Alp Panonica Adriat. 2007 Mar. 16(1):3-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Halawani MR. Dermatological manifestations of hepatitis C virus infection in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med J. 2014 Jun. 35(6):531-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Walczak-Koszela I, Sysa-Jędrzejowska A, Woźniacka A. [Skin diseases associated with hepatitis C virus]. Postepy Hig Med Dosw (Online). 2015 Dec 9. 69:1325-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cacciola I, Borgia F, Filomia R, Pitrone C, Franzè MS, Alibrandi A, et al. Outcome of cutaneous psoriasis in hepatitis C virus-infected patients treated with Direct-Acting Antiviral therapy. J Viral Hepat. 2020 Mar. 27 (3):333-337. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chun K, Afshar M, Audish D, Kabigting F, Paik A, Gallo R, et al. Hepatitis C may enhance key amplifiers of psoriasis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2016 May 17. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Megna M, Fabbrocini G, Gallo L, et al. A Case of Chronic HCV Infection Reactivation in a Psoriasis Patient Treated with Guselkumab. Curr Drug Saf. 2022. 17 (4):390-392. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bull-Otterson L, Huang YA, Zhu W, King H, Edlin BR, Hoover KW. HIV and Hepatitis C Virus Infection Testing Among Commercially Insured Persons Who Inject Drugs, United States, 2010-2017. J Infect Dis. 2020 Jan 30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations for the identification of chronic hepatitis C virus infection among persons born during 1945-1965. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2012 Aug 17. 61:1-32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Yang DH, Ho LJ, Lai JH. Useful biomarkers for assessment of hepatitis C virus infection-associated autoimmune disorders. World J Gastroenterol. 2014 Mar 21. 20(11):2962-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Roccatello D, Sciascia S, Rossi D, Solfietti L, Fenoglio R, Menegatti E, et al. The challenge of treating hepatitis C virus-associated cryoglobulinemic vasculitis in the era of anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies and direct antiviral agents. Oncotarget. 2017 Apr 9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cacoub P, Terrier B, Saadoun D. Hepatitis C virus-induced vasculitis: therapeutic options. Ann Rheum Dis. 2013 Aug 6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wang CR, Tsai HW. Human hepatitis viruses-associated cutaneous and systemic vasculitis. World J Gastroenterol. 2021 Jan 7. 27 (1):19-36. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Giuggioli D, Manfredi A, Lumetti F, Sebastiani M, Ferri C. Cryoglobulinemic vasculitis and skin ulcers. Our therapeutic strategy and review of the literature. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2015 Apr. 44(5):518-526. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Li Z, Zhang Y, An J, Feng Y, Deng H, Xiao S, et al. Predictive factors for adverse dermatological events during pegylated/interferon alpha and ribavirin treatment for hepatitis C. J Clin Virol. 2014 Jul. 60(3):190-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bonkovsky HL, Mehta S. Hepatitis C: a review and update. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2001 Feb. 44(2):159-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wang H, Eckels DD. Mutations in immunodominant T cell epitopes derived from the nonstructural 3 protein of hepatitis C virus have the potential for generating escape variants that may have important consequences for T cell recognition. J Immunol. 1999 Apr 1. 162(7):4177-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Arrieta JJ, Rodriguez-Inigo E, Casqueiro M, et al. Detection of hepatitis C virus replication by In situ hybridization in epithelial cells of anti-hepatitis C virus-positive patients with and without oral lichen planus. Hepatology. 2000 Jul. 32(1):97-103. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ferri C, Zignego AL, Bombardieri S, et al. Etiopathogenetic role of hepatitis C virus in mixed cryoglobulinemia, chronic liver diseases and lymphomas. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1995 Nov-Dec. 13 Suppl 13:S135-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Sansonno D, Cornacchiulo V, Iacobelli AR, Di Stefano R, Lospalluti M, Dammacco F. Localization of hepatitis C virus antigens in liver and skin tissues of chronic hepatitis C virus-infected patients with mixed cryoglobulinemia. Hepatology. 1995 Feb. 21(2):305-12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kanto T, Hayashi N, Takehara T, et al. Impaired allostimulatory capacity of peripheral blood dendritic cells recovered from hepatitis C virus-infected individuals. J Immunol. 1999 May 1. 162(9):5584-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Frasca L, Del Porto P, Tuosto L, et al. Hypervariable region 1 variants act as TCR antagonists for hepatitis C virus-specific CD4+ T cells. J Immunol. 1999 Jul 15. 163(2):650-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hartmann H, Schott P, Polzien F, et al. Cryoglobulinemia in chronic hepatitis C virus infection: prevalence, clinical manifestations, response to interferon treatment and analysis of cryoprecipitates. Z Gastroenterol. 1995 Nov. 33(11):643-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Terrier B, Sene D, Dechartres A, et al. Systemic Vasculitis in Patients with Hepatitis C Virus Infection with and without Detectable Mixed Cryoglobulinemia. J Rheumatol. 2011 Jan. 38(1):104-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Oikonomou KG, Sarpel D, Abrams-Downey A, Mubasher A, Dieterich DT. Necrolytic acral erythema in a human immunodeficiency virus/hepatitis C virus coinfected patient: A case report. World J Hepatol. 2019 Feb 27. 11 (2):226-233. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Neri S, Raciti C, D'Angelo G, Ierna D, Bruno CM. Hyde's prurigo nodularis and chronic HCV hepatitis. J Hepatol. 1998 Jan. 28(1):161-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Fawzy MM, Hammad NM, Sharaf AL, Khattab F. Hepatitis C virus infection could be a risk factor for adult-onset vitiligo in Egyptian patients: A cross-sectional study. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2022 Oct. 21 (10):4983-4989. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lim HW, Pereira A, Sassa S, Kim M, Zolla-Pazner S. Early-stage HIV infection and hepatitis C virus infection are associated with elevated serum porphyrin levels. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1998 Dec. 39(6):956-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ramos-Casals M, Loustaud-Ratti V, De Vita S, et al. Sjogren syndrome associated with hepatitis C virus: a multicenter analysis of 137 cases. Medicine (Baltimore). 2005 Mar. 84(2):81-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Vallisa D, Berte R, Rocca A, et al. Association between hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, and effects of viral infection on histologic subtype and clinical course. Am J Med. 1999 May. 106(5):556-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
De Vita S, Sansonno D, Dolcetti R, et al. Hepatitis C virus within a malignant lymphoma lesion in the course of type II mixed cryoglobulinemia. Blood. 1995 Sep 1. 86(5):1887-92. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Tai DI, Tsai SL, Chen YM, et al. Activation of nuclear factor kappaB in hepatitis C virus infection: implications for pathogenesis and hepatocarcinogenesis. Hepatology. 2000 Mar. 31(3):656-64. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Alter MJ, Kruszon-Moran D, Nainan OV, et al. The prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, 1988 through 1994. N Engl J Med. 1999 Aug 19. 341(8):556-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hepatitis C: global prevalence. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 1997 Nov 14. 72(46):341-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Nakashima K, Ikematsu H, Hayashi J, Kishihara Y, Mutsutake A, Kashiwagi S. Intrafamilial transmission of hepatitis-C virus among the population of an endemic area of Japan. JAMA. 1995 Nov 8. 274(18):1459-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Osella AR, Misciagna G, Leone A, Di Leo A, Fiore G. Epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection in an area of Southern Italy. J Hepatol. 1997 Jul. 27(1):30-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kiyosawa K, Tanaka E, Sodeyama T, et al. Transmission of hepatitis C in an isolated area in Japan: community-acquired infection. The South Kiso Hepatitis Study Group. Gastroenterology. 1994 Jun. 106(6):1596-602. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gordon SC, Bayati N, Silverman AL. Clinical outcome of hepatitis C as a function of mode of transmission. Hepatology. 1998 Aug. 28(2):562-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hu KQ, Tong MJ. The long-term outcomes of patients with compensated hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis and history of parenteral exposure in the United States. Hepatology. 1999 Apr. 29(4):1311-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Fattovich G, Giustina G, Degos F, et al. Effectiveness of interferon alfa on incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma and decompensation in cirrhosis type C. European Concerted Action on Viral Hepatitis (EUROHEP). J Hepatol. 1997 Jul. 27(1):201-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Seeff LB, Miller RN, Rabkin CS, et al. 45-year follow-up of hepatitis C virus infection in healthy young adults. Ann Intern Med. 2000 Jan 18. 132(2):105-11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Vogt M, Lang T, Frosner G, et al. Prevalence and clinical outcome of hepatitis C infection in children who underwent cardiac surgery before the implementation of blood-donor screening. N Engl J Med. 1999 Sep 16. 341(12):866-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Obando J, Tororelli K, Banner B. Iron: the major HFE gene mutation and chronic hepatitis C [abstract]. Gastroenterology. 1999. 118:A593.
Banner BF, Karamitsios N, Smith L, Bonkovsky HL. Enhanced phenotypic expression of alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency in an MZ heterozygote with chronic hepatitis C. Am J Gastroenterol. 1998 Sep. 93(9):1541-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cacoub P, Poynard T, Ghillani P, et al. Extrahepatic manifestations of chronic hepatitis C. MULTIVIRC Group. Multidepartment Virus C. Arthritis Rheum. 1999 Oct. 42(10):2204-12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cacoub P, Renou C, Rosenthal E, Cohen P, Loury I, Loustaud-Ratti V. Extrahepatic manifestations associated with hepatitis C virus infection. A prospective multicenter study of 321 patients. The GERMIVIC. Groupe d Etude et de Recherche en Medecine Interne et Maladies Infectieuses sur le Virus de l Hepatite C. Medicine (Baltimore). 2000 Jan. 79(1):47-56. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Dervis E, Serez K. The prevalence of dermatologic manifestations related to chronic hepatitis C virus infection in a study from a single center in Turkey. Acta Dermatovenerol Alp Panonica Adriat. 2005 Sep. 14(3):93-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chuang TY, Stitle L, Brashear R, Lewis C. Hepatitis C virus and lichen planus: A case-control study of 340 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1999 Nov. 41(5 Pt 1):787-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Nagao Y, Sata M, Kage M, Kameyama T, Ueno T. Histopathological and immunohistochemical study of oral lichen planus-associated HCV infection. Eur J Intern Med. 2000 Oct. 11(5):277-282. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Nagao Y, Sata M, Fukuizumi K, Ryu F, Ueno T. High incidence of oral lichen planus in an HCV hyperendemic area. Gastroenterology. 2000 Sep. 119(3):882-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Parodi A, Divano MC, Rebora A. Serologic markers of autoimmune chronic hepatitis in patients with lichen planus. Eur J Dermatol. 1996. 6:30-1.
Sanchez-Perez J, De Castro M, Buezo GF, Fernandez-Herrera J, Borque MJ, Garcia-Díez A. Lichen planus and hepatitis C virus: prevalence and clinical presentation of patients with lichen planus and hepatitis C virus infection. Br J Dermatol. 1996 Apr. 134(4):715-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Mignogna MD, Lo Muzio L, Lo Russo L, Fedele S, Ruoppo E, Bucci E. Oral lichen planus: different clinical features in HCV-positive and HCV-negative patients. Int J Dermatol. 2000 Feb. 39(2):134-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Mignogna MD, Lo Muzio L, Favia G, Mignogna RE, Carbone R, Bucci E. Oral lichen planus and HCV infection: a clinical evaluation of 263 cases. Int J Dermatol. 1998 Aug. 37(8):575-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Nagao Y, Kawasaki K, Sata M. Insulin resistance and lichen planus in patients with HCV-infectious liver diseases. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008 Apr. 23(4):580-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Maticic M, Poljak M, Lunder T, Rener-Sitar K, Stojanovic L. Lichen planus and other cutaneous manifestations in chronic hepatitis C: pre- and post-interferon-based treatment prevalence vary in a cohort of patients from low hepatitis C virus endemic area. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2008 Jul. 22(7):779-88. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Carbone M, Arduino PG, Carrozzo M, et al. Course of oral lichen planus: a retrospective study of 808 northern Italian patients. Oral Dis. 2009 Apr. 15(3):235-43. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Khanna VJ, Shieh S, Benjamin J, et al. Necrolytic acral erythema associated with hepatitis C: effective treatment with interferon alfa and zinc. Arch Dermatol. 2000 Jun. 136(6):755-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Halpern AV, Peikin SR, Ferzli P, Heymann WR. Necrolytic acral erythema: an expanding spectrum. Cutis. 2009 Dec. 84(6):301-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Monroe LR. Fatal sight: Mooren's ulcer. EyeNet Magazine. 1998 April. 2(4).
Hamid S, Cruz PD Jr, Lee WM. Urticarial vasculitis caused by hepatitis C virus infection: response to interferon alfa therapy. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1998 Aug. 39(2 Pt 1):278-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Haddad J, Deny P, Munz-Gotheil C, et al. Lymphocytic sialadenitis of Sjögren's syndrome associated with chronic hepatitis C virus liver disease. Lancet. 1992 Feb 8. 339(8789):321-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Domingo P, Ris J, Martinez E, Casas F. Erythema nodosum and hepatitis C. Lancet. 1990 Dec 1. 336(8727):1377. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Morgan AJ, Schwartz RA. Cutaneous polyarteritis nodosa: a comprehensive review. Int J Dermatol. 2010 Jul. 49(7):750-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Saadoun D, Terrier B, Semoun O, et al. Hepatitis C virus-associated polyarteritis nodosa. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2010 Oct 27. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Davis GL, Esteban-Mur R, Rustgi V, et al. Interferon alfa-2b alone or in combination with ribavirin for the treatment of relapse of chronic hepatitis C. International Hepatitis Interventional Therapy Group. N Engl J Med. 1998 Nov 19. 339(21):1493-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Reichel M, Mauro TM. Urticaria and hepatitis C. Lancet. 1990 Sep 29. 336(8718):822-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bulaj ZJ, Phillips JD, Ajioka RS, et al. Hemochromatosis genes and other factors contributing to the pathogenesis of porphyria cutanea tarda. Blood. 2000 Mar 1. 95(5):1565-71. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cribier B, Petiau P, Keller F, et al. Porphyria cutanea tarda and hepatitis C viral infection. A clinical and virologic study. Arch Dermatol. 1995 Jul. 131(7):801-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Singal AK. Porphyria cutanea tarda: Recent update. Mol Genet Metab. 2019 Jan 18. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Luppi M, Longo G, Ferrari MG, et al. Clinico-pathological characterization of hepatitis C virus-related B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphomas without symptomatic cryoglobulinemia. Ann Oncol. 1998 May. 9(5):495-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
De Re V, De Vita S, Marzotto A, et al. Sequence analysis of the immunoglobulin antigen receptor of hepatitis C virus-associated non-Hodgkin lymphomas suggests that the malignant cells are derived from the rheumatoid factor-producing cells that occur mainly in type II cryoglobulinemia. Blood. 2000 Nov 15. 96(10):3578-84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Domingo JM, Romero S, Moreno JA, Domingo JA, Callen L, Gutierrez M. Hepatitis C virus infection and mixed cryoglobulinemia in patients with lymphoproliferative diseases. Haematologica. 1999 Jan. 84(1):94-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Guastafierro S, Sessa F, Tirelli A. Biclonal gammopathy and platelet antibodies in a patient with chronic hepatitis C virus infection and mixed cryoglobulinemia. Ann Hematol. 2000 Aug. 79(8):463-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chang KM, Gruener NH, Southwood S, et al. Identification of HLA-A3 and -B7-restricted CTL response to hepatitis C virus in patients with acute and chronic hepatitis C. J Immunol. 1999 Jan 15. 162(2):1156-64. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ramos-Casals M, la Civita L, de Vita S, et al. Characterization of B cell lymphoma in patients with Sjögren's syndrome and hepatitis C virus infection. Arthritis Rheum. 2007 Feb 15. 57(1):161-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Villano SA, Vlahov D, Nelson KE, Cohn S, Thomas DL. Persistence of viremia and the importance of long-term follow-up after acute hepatitis C infection. Hepatology. 1999 Mar. 29(3):908-14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Schlesinger TE, Camisa C, Gay JD, Bergfeld WF. Oral erosive lichen planus with epidermolytic hyperkeratosis during interferon alfa-2b therapy for chronic hepatitis C virus infection. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1997 Jun. 36(6 Pt 1):1023-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gupta G, Holmes SC, Spence E, Mills PR. Capillaritis associated with interferon-alfa treatment of chronic hepatitis C infection. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2000 Nov. 43(5 Pt 2):937-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kono T, Kobayashi H, Ishii M, Nishiguchi S, Taniguchi S. Synchronous development of disseminated superficial porokeratosis and hepatitis C virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2000 Nov. 43(5 Pt 2):966-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Granel B, Serratrice J, Rey J, et al. Chronic hepatitis C virus infection associated with a generalized granuloma annulare. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2000 Nov. 43(5 Pt 2):918-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Shearer CM, Jackson JM, Callen JP. Symmetric polyarthritis with livedo reticularis: a newly recognized manifestation of hepatitis C virus infection. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1997 Oct. 37(4):659-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chima N, Houghton JP, Igwegbe I, et al. Gougerot-Blum disease as a manifestation of hepatitis C infection. J Cutan Pathol. 2000. 27:569.
Fernandes SS, Carvalho J, Leite S, et al. Erythema induratum and chronic hepatitis C infection. J Clin Virol. 2009 Apr. 44(4):333-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Faurie P, Broussolle C, Zoulim F, Trepo C, Sève P. Sarcoidosis and hepatitis C: clinical description of 11 cases. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2010 Mar 6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Jackson JM, Callen JP. Scarring alopecia and sclerodermatous changes of the scalp in a patient with hepatitis C infection. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1998 Nov. 39(5 Pt 2):824-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Carrozzo M, Carbone M, Gandolfo S, Valente G, Colombatto P, Ghisetti V. An atypical verrucous carcinoma of the tongue arising in a patient with oral lichen planus associated with hepatitis C virus infection. Oral Oncol. 1997 May. 33(3):220-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Rongioletti F, Rebora A. Worsening of lichen myxedematosus during interferon alfa-2a therapy for chronic active hepatitis C. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1998 May. 38(5 Pt 1):760-1. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ohto H, Terazawa S, Sasaki N, et al. Transmission of hepatitis C virus from mothers to infants. The Vertical Transmission of Hepatitis C Virus Collaborative Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1994 Mar 17. 330(11):744-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
[Guideline] American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases, Infectious Diseases Society of America, International Antiviral Society-USA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for Testing, Managing, and Treating Hepatitis C. HCVguidelines.org. Available at http://www.hcvguidelines.org/full-report/initial-treatment-hcv-infection. June 2015; Accessed: July 17, 2015.
[Guideline] AASLD/IDSA HCV Guidance Panel. Hepatitis C guidance: AASLD-IDSA recommendations for testing, managing, and treating adults infected with hepatitis C virus. Hepatology. 2015 Sep. 62 (3):932-54. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

Media Gallery

Cold agglutinin disease indistinguishable from cryoglobulinemia. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Cryoglobulinemia, palpable purpura, dysproteinemic purpura, and leukocytoclastic vasculitis (small vessel vasculitis). Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Cutis marmorata. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Erythema multiforme, bull's-eye lesions. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Erythema dyschromicum perstans. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Erythema dyschromicum perstans. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Erythema nodosa. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Erythema nodosa. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Erythema multiforme. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Erythema multiforme. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Erythema multiforme. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Erythema multiforme of the oral mucosa. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Erythema multiforme (Stevens-Johnson syndrome). Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Palmar erythema. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Granuloma annulare. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Disseminated superficial (actinic) porokeratosis. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Disseminated superficial (actinic) porokeratosis. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Lichen planus. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Lichen planus. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Lichen planus. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Lichen planus (hypertrophic type). Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Lichen planus (oral lesions). Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Lichen planus (volar wrist). Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Lymphoma cutis. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Henoch-Schönlein purpura. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Palpable purpura. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Purpura in hemophilia (factor VIII deficiency). All ecchymoses and bland petechiae are in the differential diagnosis of thrombocytopenic purpuras, including thrombocytopenia secondary to hepatitis C virus in which an autoantibody to platelets is present. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Progressive pigmented purpuric eruption. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Progressive pigmented purpura (photo rotated 90°). Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Progressive pigmented purpura (Gougerot-Blum disease). Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Progressive pigmented purpura (Schamberg disease). Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Thrombocytopenic purpura. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Prurigo nodularis. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Prurigo nodularis. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Prurigo nodularis. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Chronic urticaria. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Urticaria (secondary to penicillin). Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Nodular vasculitis. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Henoch-Schönlein purpura, palpable purpura, and leukocytoclastic vasculitis. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Vitiligo. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Vitiligo. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.
Waldenström hypergammaglobulinemic purpura. Courtesy of Walter Reed Army Medical Center Dermatology.

of 42

Author

Robert A Schwartz, MD, MPH Professor and Head of Dermatology, Professor of Pathology, Professor of Pediatrics, Professor of Medicine, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School

Robert A Schwartz, MD, MPH is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Dermatology, New York Academy of Medicine, Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Honor Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Arthur P Birnkrant, MD Clinical Instructor, Department of Dermatology, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey

Arthur P Birnkrant, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology, American Society for MOHS Surgery

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

David F Butler, MD Former Section Chief of Dermatology, Central Texas Veterans Healthcare System; Professor of Dermatology, Texas A&M University College of Medicine; Founding Chair, Department of Dermatology, Scott and White Clinic

David F Butler, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Dermatology, Association of Military Dermatologists, Phi Beta Kappa, Texas Dermatological Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Jeffrey P Callen, MD Professor of Medicine (Dermatology), Chief, Division of Dermatology, University of Louisville School of Medicine

Jeffrey P Callen, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Dermatology, American College of Physicians, American College of Rheumatology

Disclosure: Received income in an amount equal to or greater than $250 from: Biogen US (Adjudicator for study entry cutaneous lupus erythematosus); Priovant (Adjudicator for entry into a dermatomyositis study); IQVIA (Serono - adjudicator for a study of cutaneous LE) <br/>Received honoraria from UpToDate for author/editor; Received royalty from Elsevier for book author/editor; Received dividends from trust accounts, but I do not control these accounts, and have directed our managers to divest pharmaceutical stocks as is fiscally prudent from Stock holdings in various trust accounts include some pharmaceutical companies and device makers for these trust accounts for: Stocks held in various trust accounts: Allergen; Amgen; Pfizer; 3M; Johnson and Johnson; Merck; Abbott Laboratories; AbbVie; Procter and Gamble;; Celgene; Gilead; CVS; Walgreens; Bristol-Myers Squibb.

Chief Editor

Dirk M Elston, MD Professor and Chairman, Department of Dermatology and Dermatologic Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina College of Medicine

Dirk M Elston, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Additional Contributors

Craig A Elmets, MD Professor and Chair, Department of Dermatology, Director, Chemoprevention Program Director, Comprehensive Cancer Center, UAB Skin Diseases Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham School of Medicine

Craig A Elmets, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology, American Association of Immunologists, American College of Physicians, American Federation for Medical Research, Society for Investigative Dermatology

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: University of Alabama at Birmingham; University of Alabama Health Services Foundation<br/>Serve(d) as a speaker or a member of a speakers bureau for: Ferndale Laboratories<br/>Received research grant from: NIH, Veterans Administration, California Grape Assn<br/>Received consulting fee from Astellas for review panel membership; Received salary from Massachusetts Medical Society for employment; Received salary from UpToDate for employment. for: Astellas.

Acknowledgements

The authors and editors of Medscape Reference gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous author, Michael Birnkrant, BS, to the development and writing of this article.