Fisher RS, van Emde Boas W, Blume W, et al. Epileptic seizures and epilepsy: definitions proposed by the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) and the International Bureau for Epilepsy (IBE). Epilepsia. 2005 Apr. 46(4):470-2. [Medline].
Goodkin HP. The founding of the American Epilepsy Society: 1936-1971. Epilepsia. 2007 Jan. 48(1):15-22. [Medline].
Rho JM, Sankar R, Cavazos JE. Epilepsy: Scientific Foundations of Clinical Practice. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker; 2004.
Kramer MA, Cash SS. Epilepsy as a disorder of cortical network organization. Neuroscientist. 2012 Aug. 18(4):360-72. [Medline].
Houser CR, Esclapez M. Vulnerability and plasticity of the GABA system in the pilocarpine model of spontaneous recurrent seizures. Epilepsy Res. 1996 Dec. 26(1):207-18. [Medline].
Sloviter RS. Status epilepticus-induced neuronal injury and network reorganization. Epilepsia. 1999. 40(suppl 1):S34-9; discussion S40-1. [Medline].
Scharfman HE, Schwartzkroin PA. Protection of dentate hilar cells from prolonged stimulation by intracellular calcium chelation. Science. 1989 Oct 13. 246(4927):257-60. [Medline].
Cavazos JE, Das I, Sutula TP. Neuronal loss induced in limbic pathways by kindling: evidence for induction of hippocampal sclerosis by repeated brief seizures. J Neurosci. 1994 May. 14(5 pt 2):3106-21. [Medline].
Sutula T, Cascino G, Cavazos J, et al. Mossy fiber synaptic reorganization in the epileptic human temporal lobe. Ann Neurol. 1989 Sep. 26(3):321-30. [Medline].
Mastrangelo M, Leuzzi V. Genes of early-onset epileptic encephalopathies: from genotype to phenotype. Pediatr Neurol. 2012 Jan. 46(1):24-31. [Medline].
McCormick DA. Cellular mechanisms underlying cholinergic and noradrenergic modulation of neuronal firing mode in the cat and guinea pig dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus. J Neurosci. 1992 Jan. 12(1):278-89. [Medline].
Hosford DA, Clark S, Cao Z, et al. The role of GABAB receptor activation in absence seizures of lethargic (lh/lh) mice. Science. 1992 Jul 17. 257(5068):398-401. [Medline].
Hagberg B, Hanefeld F, Percy A, Skjeldal O. An update on clinically applicable diagnostic criteria in Rett syndrome. Comments to Rett Syndrome Clinical Criteria Consensus Panel Satellite to European Paediatric Neurology Society Meeting, Baden Baden, Germany, 11 September 2001. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2002. 6(5):293-7. [Medline].
Steffenburg U, Hagberg G, Hagberg B. Epilepsy in a representative series of Rett syndrome. Acta Paediatr. 2001 Jan. 90(1):34-9. [Medline].
Whalen S, Héron D, Gaillon T, Moldovan O, Rossi M, Devillard F, et al. Novel comprehensive diagnostic strategy in Pitt-Hopkins syndrome: clinical score and further delineation of the TCF4 mutational spectrum. Hum Mutat. 2012 Jan. 33(1):64-72. [Medline].
Roach ES, Sparagana SP. Diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis complex. J Child Neurol. 2004 Sep. 19(9):643-9. [Medline].
Kao A, Mariani J, McDonald-McGinn DM, Maisenbacher MK, Brooks-Kayal AR, Zackai EH, et al. Increased prevalence of unprovoked seizures in patients with a 22q11.2 deletion. Am J Med Genet A. 2004 Aug 15. 129A(1):29-34. [Medline].
Battaglia A, Filippi T, South ST, Carey JC. Spectrum of epilepsy and electroencephalogram patterns in Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome: experience with 87 patients. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2009 May. 51(5):373-80. [Medline].
Battaglia A, Hoyme HE, Dallapiccola B, Zackai E, Hudgins L, McDonald-McGinn D, et al. Further delineation of deletion 1p36 syndrome in 60 patients: a recognizable phenotype and common cause of developmental delay and mental retardation. Pediatrics. 2008 Feb. 121(2):404-10. [Medline].
Hauser WA, Annegers JF, Rocca WA. Descriptive epidemiology of epilepsy: contributions of population-based studies from Rochester, Minnesota. Mayo Clin Proc. 1996 Jun. 71(6):576-86. [Medline].
Hirsch LJ, Donner EJ, So EL, Jacobs M, Nashef L, Noebels JL, et al. Abbreviated report of the NIH/NINDS workshop on sudden unexpected death in epilepsy. Neurology. 2011 May 31. 76(22):1932-8. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Luders H, Acharya J, Baumgartner C, et al. Semiological seizure classification. Epilepsia. 1998 Sep. 39(9):1006-13. [Medline].
Loddenkemper T, Kellinghaus C, Wyllie E, Najm IM, Gupta A, Rosenow F. A proposal for a five-dimensional patient-oriented epilepsy classification. Epileptic Disord. 2005 Dec. 7(4):308-16. [Medline].
Engel J Jr. Report of the ILAE classification core group. Epilepsia. 2006 Sep. 47(9):1558-68. [Medline].
Wolf P. Basic principles of the ILAE syndrome classification. Epilepsy Res. 2006 Aug. 70 suppl 1:S20-6. [Medline].
Berg AT, Berkovic SF, Brodie MJ, et al. Revised terminology and concepts for organization of seizures and epilepsies: report of the ILAE Commission on Classification and Terminology, 2005-2009. Epilepsia. 2010 Apr. 51(4):676-85. [Medline].
Engel J Jr. A proposed diagnostic scheme for people with epileptic seizures and with epilepsy: report of the ILAE Task Force on Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia. 2001 Jun. 42(6):796-803. [Medline].
Wolf P. Of cabbages and kings: some considerations on classifications, diagnostic schemes, semiology, and concepts. Epilepsia. 2003 Jan. 44(1):1-4; discussion 4-13. [Medline].
Beghi E. The concept of the epilepsy syndrome: how useful is it in clinical practice?. Epilepsia. 2009 May. 50 suppl 5:4-10. [Medline].
[Guideline] Chen DK, So YT, Fisher RS. Use of serum prolactin in diagnosing epileptic seizures: report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2005 Sep 13. 65(5):668-75. [Medline].
First Seizure Trial Group (FIR.S.T Group). Randomized clinical trial on the efficacy of antiepileptic drugs in reducing the risk of relapse after a first unprovoked tonic-clonic seizure. Neurology. 1993 Mar. 43(3 pt 1):478-83. [Medline].
Glauser TA, Cnaan A, Shinnar S, et al, for the Childhood Absence Epilepsy Study Group. Ethosuximide, valproic acid, and lamotrigine in childhood absence epilepsy. N Engl J Med. 2010 Mar 4. 362(9):790-9. [Medline].
Ng YT, Conry JA, Drummond R, Stolle J, Weinberg MA. Randomized, phase III study results of clobazam in Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Neurology. 2011 Oct 11. 77(15):1473-1481. [Medline].
Bastings E. New drug application (NDA) approval letter: Qudexy XR (topiramate) extended-release capsules. NDA no. 205122. Available at http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/appletter/2014/205122Orig1s000ltr.pdf. Accessed: March 14, 2014.
Qudexy XR: FDA approval labeling text dated March 11, 2014. Available at http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2014/205122s000lbl.pdf. Accessed: March 14, 2014.
Jeffrey S. FDA okays another extended-release topiramate for epilepsy. Medscape Medical News. March 13, 2014. [Full Text].
Upsher-Smith Laboratories, Inc. Upsher-Smith receives FDA approval for Qudexy XR (topiramate) extended-release capsules [press release]. March 12, 2014. Available at http://www.upsher-smith.com/wp-content/uploads/108885.01-QXR-PR-FDA-Approval-FINAL.pdf. Accessed: March 14, 2014.
Marson AG, Al-Kharusi AM, Alwaidh M, et al, for the SANAD Study group. The SANAD study of effectiveness of valproate, lamotrigine, or topiramate for generalised and unclassifiable epilepsy: an unblinded randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2007 Mar 24. 369(9566):1016-26. [Medline].
Brooks M. Levetiracetam Taken in Pregnancy Found Safe for Child Neurodevelopment. Medscape Medical News. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/818902. Accessed: January 16, 214.
Shallcross R, Bromley RL, Cheyne CP, García-Fiñana M, Irwin B, Morrow J, et al. In utero exposure to levetiracetam vs valproate: Development and language at 3 years of age. Neurology. 2014 Jan 8. [Medline].
US Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves Fycompa to treat seizures. October 22, 2012. Available at http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm325038.htm. Accessed: Sept 19, 2013.
Mattson RH, Cramer JA, Collins JF, et al. Comparison of carbamazepine, phenobarbital, phenytoin, and primidone in partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. N Engl J Med. 1985 Jul 18. 313(3):145-51. [Medline].
Mattson RH, Cramer JA, Collins JF. A comparison of valproate with carbamazepine for the treatment of complex partial seizures and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures in adults. The Department of Veterans Affairs Epilepsy Cooperative Study No. 264 Group. N Engl J Med. 1992 Sep 10. 327(11):765-71. [Medline].
Rowan AJ, Ramsay RE, Collins JF, et al, for the VA Cooperative Study 428 Group. New onset geriatric epilepsy: a randomized study of gabapentin, lamotrigine, and carbamazepine. Neurology. 2005 Jun 14. 64(11):1868-73. [Medline].
Marson AG, Al-Kharusi AM, Alwaidh M, et al, for the SANAD Study Group. The SANAD study of effectiveness of carbamazepine, gabapentin, lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine, or topiramate for treatment of partial epilepsy: an unblinded randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2007 Mar 24. 369(9566):1000-15. [Medline].
French JA, Kanner AM, Bautista J, et al, for the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the AAN; Quality Standards Subcommittee of the AAN; and AES. Efficacy and tolerability of the new antiepileptic drugs I: treatment of new onset epilepsy: report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee and Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society. Neurology. 2004 Apr 27. 62(8):1252-60. [Medline].
French JA, Kanner AM, Bautista J, et al for the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the AAN; Quality Standards Subcommittee of the AAN; and AES. Efficacy and tolerability of the new antiepileptic drugs, II: treatment of refractory epilepsy. Report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee and Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society. Neurology. 2004 Apr 27. 62(8):1261-73. [Medline].
Herman AO. Anti-seizure drug linked to retinal abnormalities, skin discoloration. Physician's First Watch. April 29, 2013. [Full Text].
Jeffrey S. FDA Label Changes Underline Risks With Ezogabine. Medscape Medical News. Oct 31 2013. [Full Text].
FDA. FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA approves label changes for anti-seizure drug Potiga (ezogabine) describing risk of retinal abnormalities, potential vision loss, and skin discoloration. US Food and Drug Administration. Oct 31 2013. Available at http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm372774.htm.
Kwan P, Arzimanoglou A, Berg AT, Brodie MJ, Allen Hauser W, Mathern G, et al. Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia. 2010 Jun. 51(6):1069-77. [Medline].
Ramos-Lizana J, Rodriguez-Lucenilla MI, Aguilera-López P, Aguirre-Rodríguez J, Cassinello-García E. A study of drug-resistant childhood epilepsy testing the new ILAE criteria. Seizure. 2012 May. 21(4):266-72. [Medline].
Iorio R, Assenza G, Della Marca G, et al. Neural autoantibodies and immunotherapy-responsive epilepsy: a prospective study [abstract 1956]. Presented at: XXI World Congress of Neurology (WNC), 2013; September 22, 2013; Vienna, Austria. [Full Text].
Keller DM. Immunotherapy helps epileptic patients with neural antibodies. Medscape Medical News. September 27, 2013. [Full Text].
[Guideline] Harden CL, Pennell PB, Koppel BS, et al, for the AAN and AES. Management issues for women with epilepsy--focus on pregnancy (an evidence-based review): III. Vitamin K, folic acid, blood levels, and breast-feeding: Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee and Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society. Epilepsia. 2009 May. 50(5):1247-55. [Medline].
[Guideline] Birbeck GL, French JA, Perucca E, Simpson DM, Fraimow H, George JM, et al. Antiepileptic drug selection for people with HIV/AIDS: evidence-based guidelines from the ILAE and AAN. Epilepsia. 2012 Jan. 53(1):207-14. [Medline].
[Guideline] Harden CL, Hopp J, Ting TY, et al, for the AAN and AES. Management issues for women with epilepsy-Focus on pregnancy (an evidence-based review): I. Obstetrical complications and change in seizure frequency: Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee and Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society. Epilepsia. 2009 May. 50(5):1229-36. [Medline].
[Guideline] Harden CL, Meador KJ, Pennell PB, et al, for the AAN and AES. Management issues for women with epilepsy-Focus on pregnancy (an evidence-based review): II. Teratogenesis and perinatal outcomes: Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee and Therapeutics and Technology Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society. Epilepsia. 2009 May. 50(5):1237-46. [Medline].
Levy RG, Cooper PN, Giri P. Ketogenic diet and other dietary treatments for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Mar 14. 3:CD001903. [Medline].
Kossoff EH, Turner Z, Bluml RM, Pyzik PL, Vining EP. A randomized, crossover comparison of daily carbohydrate limits using the modified Atkins diet. Epilepsy Behav. 2007 May. 10(3):432-6. [Medline].
Weber S, Mølgaard C, Karentaudorf, Uldall P. Modified Atkins diet to children and adolescents with medical intractable epilepsy. Seizure. 2009 May. 18(4):237-40. [Medline].
Smith M, Politzer N, Macgarvie D, McAndrews MP, Del Campo M. Efficacy and tolerability of the modified Atkins diet in adults with pharmacoresistant epilepsy: a prospective observational study. Epilepsia. 2011 Apr. 52(4):775-80. [Medline].
Anderson P. FDA approves extended-release once-daily epilepsy drug. Medscape Medical News. August 21, 2013. [Full Text].
Supernus Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Supernus announces final FDA approval and upcoming launch of Trokendi XR(TM) [press release]. August 19, 2013. Available at http://ir.supernus.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=785927. Accessed: August 27, 2013.
Englot DJ, Chang EF, Auguste KI. Vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy: a meta-analysis of efficacy and predictors of response. J Neurosurg. 2011 Dec. 115(6):1248-55. [Medline].
Anderson P. FDA Panel Endorses Epilepsy Neurostimulator. Medscape Medical News. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/779901. Accessed: March 4, 2013.
Lowes R. FDA Approves Implantable Neurostimulator for Epilepsy. Medscape Medical News. Nov 14 2013. [Full Text].
FDA. FDA approves medical device to treat epilepsy. Nov 14 2013. [Full Text].
Wiebe S, Blume WT, Girvin JP, Eliasziw M, for the Effectiveness and Efficiency of Surgery for Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Study Group. A randomized, controlled trial of surgery for temporal-lobe epilepsy. N Engl J Med. 2001 Aug 2. 345(5):311-8. [Medline].
Hyslop A, Miller I, Bhatia S, Jayakar P. Functional lesionectomy: a minimally resective strategy effective in children with MRI-negative, intractable epilepsy [abstract 1.280]. Presented at: 66th Annual Meeting of the American Epilepsy Society; December 1, 2012; San Diego, Calif.
Melville NA. Minimal resection effective for some patients with epilepsy. Medscape Medical News. January 3, 2013. [Full Text].
Engel J Jr, McDermott MP, Wiebe S, Langfitt JT, Stern JM, Dewar S, et al. Early surgical therapy for drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2012 Mar 7. 307(9):922-30. [Medline].
Chen Z, Brodie MJ, Liew D, Kwan P. Treatment Outcomes in Patients with Newly Diagnosed Epilepsy Treated With Established and New Antiepileptic Drugs: A 30-Year Longitudinal Cohort Study. JAMA Neurol. 2017 Dec 26. [Medline].
Epilepsy surgery in childhood can protect memory. Medical News Today. November 14, 2014. [Full Text].
Skirrow C, Cross JH, Harrison S, Cormack F, Harkness W, Coleman R, et al. Temporal lobe surgery in childhood and neuroanatomical predictors of long-term declarative memory outcome. Brain. 2014 Nov 12. [Medline].
Anderson P. Laser ablation promising in patients with epilepsy. Medscape Medical News. December 9, 2013. [Full Text].
Novak B. Midazolam More Effective for Seizures Than Diazepam When Given IM. Medscape. Jan 24 2014. [Full Text].
Brooks M. FDA Clears First Smart Watch to Detect Seizures, Manage Epilepsy. Medscape Medical News. Available at https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/892329. February 6, 2018; Accessed: February 15, 2018.
Devinsky O, Patel AD, Cross JH, Villanueva V, Wirrell EC, Privitera M, et al. Effect of Cannabidiol on Drop Seizures in the Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2018 May 17. 378 (20):1888-1897. [Medline].
Thiele EA, Marsh ED, French JA, Mazurkiewicz-Beldzinska M, Benbadis SR, Joshi C, et al. Cannabidiol in patients with seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (GWPCARE4): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2018 Mar 17. 391 (10125):1085-1096. [Medline].
Diacomit (stiripentol) [package insert]. France: Biocodex. August, 2018. Available at [Full Text].
