Hypothyroidism Questions & Answers

1. ICD10Data.com. Other hypothyroidism E03. Available at https://www.icd10data.com/ICD10CM/Codes/E00-E89/E00-E07/E03-. Accessed: May 24, 2022.

2. ICD10Data.com. 2022 ICD-10-CM Diagnosis Code E03.9. Available at https://www.icd10data.com/ICD10CM/Codes/E00-E89/E00-E07/E03-/E03.9. Accessed: May 24, 2022.

3. Garber JR, Cobin RH, Gharib H, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: cosponsored by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Thyroid Association. Thyroid. 2012 Dec. 22(12):1200-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Li D, Radulescu A, Shrestha RT, et al. Association of Biotin Ingestion With Performance of Hormone and Nonhormone Assays in Healthy Adults. JAMA. 2017 Sep 26. 318 (12):1150-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

5. den Hollander JG, Wulkan RW, Mantel MJ, Berghout A. Correlation between severity of thyroid dysfunction and renal function. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2005 Apr. 62 (4):423-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

6. Wopereis DM, Du Puy RS, van Heemst D, et al. The Relation Between Thyroid Function and Anemia: A Pooled Analysis of Individual Participant Data. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2018 Oct 1. 103 (10):3658-67. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

7. Ladenson PW, Singer PA, Ain KB, et al. American Thyroid Association guidelines for detection of thyroid dysfunction. Arch Intern Med. 2000 Jun 12. 160(11):1573-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

8. Thyroid Disease in Pregnancy: ACOG Practice Bulletin, Number 223. Obstet Gynecol. 2020 Jun. 135 (6):e261-74. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

9. Cooper DS, Biondi B. Subclinical thyroid disease. Lancet. 2012 Mar 24. 379 (9821):1142-54. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. Niimi H, Inomata H, Sasaki N, Nakajima H. Congenital isolated thyrotrophin releasing hormone deficiency. Arch Dis Child. 1982 Nov. 57 (11):877-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

11. Surks MI, Ortiz E, Daniels GH, Sawin CT, Col NF, Cobin RH, et al. Subclinical thyroid disease: scientific review and guidelines for diagnosis and management. JAMA. 2004 Jan 14. 291 (2):228-38. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

12. Kim D. The Role of Vitamin D in Thyroid Diseases. Int J Mol Sci. 2017 Sep 12. 18 (9):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

13. Gosi SKY, Garla VV. Subclinical Hypothyroidism. StatPearls. 2022 Jan. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

14. Livingston EH. Subclinical Hypothyroidism. JAMA Patient Page. Available at https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2737684. July 9, 2019; Accessed: May 23, 2022.

15. Mantovani A, Nascimbeni F, Lonardo A, et al. Association Between Primary Hypothyroidism and Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Thyroid. 2018 Oct. 28 (10):1270-84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

16. Tomer Y, Davies TF. Searching for the autoimmune thyroid disease susceptibility genes: from gene mapping to gene function. Endocr Rev. 2003 Oct. 24 (5):694-717. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

17. Brix TH, Hegedus L. Twin studies as a model for exploring the aetiology of autoimmune thyroid disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2012 Apr. 76 (4):457-64. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

18. Bothra N, Shah N, Goroshi M, Jadhav S, Padalkar S, Thakkar H, et al. Hashimoto's thyroiditis: relative recurrence risk ratio and implications for screening of first-degree relatives. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2017 Aug. 87 (2):201-206. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Sabra M. Thyroid cancer: Is there a relationship between thyroid cancer and Hashimoto’s thyroiditis?. Clin Thyroidology Public. 6(7):6.

20. Lee JH, Kim Y, Choi JW, Kim YS. The association between papillary thyroid carcinoma and histologically proven Hashimoto's thyroiditis: a meta-analysis. Eur J Endocrinol. 2013 Mar. 168 (3):343-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

21. Cleveland Clinic. Postpartum Thyroiditis. Available at https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15294-postpartum-thyroiditis. Reviewed October 23, 2020; Accessed: May 23, 2022.

22. Stuckey BG, Kent GN, Ward LC, Brown SJ, Walsh JP. Postpartum thyroid dysfunction and the long-term risk of hypothyroidism: results from a 12-year follow-up study of women with and without postpartum thyroid dysfunction. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2010 Sep. 73 (3):389-95. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. Muller I, Cannavaro D, Dazzi D, et al. SARS-CoV-2-related atypical thyroiditis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2020 Sep. 8 (9):739-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

24. Pearce EN, Farwell AP, Braverman LE. Thyroiditis. N Engl J Med. 2003 Jun 26. 348 (26):2646-55. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Zala A, Berhane T, Juhlin CC, Calissendorff J, Falhammar H. Riedel Thyroiditis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020 Sep 1. 105 (9):[QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

26. Klionsky Y, Antonelli M. Thyroid Disease in Lupus: An Updated Review. ACR Open Rheumatol. 2020 Feb. 2 (2):74-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

27. Wolter P, Dumez H, Schöffski P. Sunitinib and hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med. 2007 Apr 12. 356 (15):1580; author reply 1580-1. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Smit JW, Stokkel MP, Pereira AM, Romijn JA, Visser TJ. Bexarotene-induced hypothyroidism: bexarotene stimulates the peripheral metabolism of thyroid hormones. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Jul. 92 (7):2496-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. Markou K, Georgopoulos N, Kyriazopoulou V, Vagenakis AG. Iodine-Induced hypothyroidism. Thyroid. 2001 May. 11 (5):501-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

30. Muir CA, Menzies AM, Clifton-Bligh R, Tsang VHM. Thyroid Toxicity Following Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Treatment in Advanced Cancer. Thyroid. 2020 Oct. 30 (10):1458-69. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Bhattacharya S, Goyal A, Kaur P, Singh R, Kalra S. Anticancer Drug-induced Thyroid Dysfunction. Eur Endocrinol. 2020 Apr. 16 (1):32-39. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

32. Ryder M, Callahan M, Postow MA, Wolchok J, Fagin JA. Endocrine-related adverse events following ipilimumab in patients with advanced melanoma: a comprehensive retrospective review from a single institution. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2014 Apr. 21 (2):371-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

33. Jannin A, Penel N, Ladsous M, Vantyghem MC, Do Cao C. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors and immune checkpoint inhibitors-induced thyroid disorders. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2019 Sep. 141:23-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. Makita N, Iiri T. Tyrosine kinase inhibitor-induced thyroid disorders: a review and hypothesis. Thyroid. 2013 Feb. 23 (2):151-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

35. Drui D, Illouz F, Do Cao C, Caron P. Expert opinion on thyroid complications of new anti-cancer therapies: Tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Ann Endocrinol (Paris). 2018 Oct. 79 (5):569-73. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

36. Denny JC, Crawford DC, Ritchie MD, Bielinski SJ, Basford MA, et al. Variants near FOXE1 are associated with hypothyroidism and other thyroid conditions: using electronic medical records for genome- and phenome-wide studies. Am J Hum Genet. 2011 Oct 7. 89 (4):529-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

37. Vono-Toniolo J, Rivolta CM, Targovnik HM, Medeiros-Neto G, Kopp P. Naturally occurring mutations in the thyroglobulin gene. Thyroid. 2005 Sep. 15 (9):1021-33. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. Park SM, Chatterjee VK. Genetics of congenital hypothyroidism. J Med Genet. 2005 May. 42 (5):379-89. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

39. Paschke R, Ludgate M. The thyrotropin receptor in thyroid diseases. N Engl J Med. 1997 Dec 4. 337 (23):1675-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

40. Macchia PE, Lapi P, Krude H, Pirro MT, Missero C, Chiovato L, et al. PAX8 mutations associated with congenital hypothyroidism caused by thyroid dysgenesis. Nat Genet. 1998 May. 19 (1):83-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

41. Everett LA, Glaser B, Beck JC, Idol JR, Buchs A, Heyman M, et al. Pendred syndrome is caused by mutations in a putative sulphate transporter gene (PDS). Nat Genet. 1997 Dec. 17 (4):411-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

42. Cetani F, Barbesino G, Borsari S, Pardi E, Cianferotti L, Pinchera A, et al. A novel mutation of the autoimmune regulator gene in an Italian kindred with autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy, acting in a dominant fashion and strongly cosegregating with hypothyroid autoimmune thyroiditis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001 Oct. 86 (10):4747-52. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

43. Woeber KA. Iodine and thyroid disease. Med Clin North Am. 1991 Jan. 75 (1):169-78. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

44. Yamada M, Mori M. Mechanisms related to the pathophysiology and management of central hypothyroidism. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2008 Dec. 4 (12):683-94. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

45. Nebesio TD, McKenna MP, Nabhan ZM, Eugster EA. Newborn screening results in children with central hypothyroidism. J Pediatr. 2010 Jun. 156 (6):990-993. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

46. Doeker BM, Pfäffle RW, Pohlenz J, Andler W. Congenital central hypothyroidism due to a homozygous mutation in the thyrotropin beta-subunit gene follows an autosomal recessive inheritance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998 May. 83 (5):1762-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

47. Bonomi M, Busnelli M, Beck-Peccoz P, Costanzo D, Antonica F, Dolci C, et al. A family with complete resistance to thyrotropin-releasing hormone. N Engl J Med. 2009 Feb 12. 360 (7):731-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

48. Katakami H, Kato Y, Inada M, Imura H. Hypothalamic hypothyroidism due to isolated thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) deficiency. J Endocrinol Invest. 1984 Jun. 7 (3):231-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

49. Aoki Y, Belin RM, Clickner R, Jeffries R, Phillips L, Mahaffey KR. Serum TSH and total T4 in the United States population and their association with participant characteristics: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 1999-2002). Thyroid. 2007 Dec. 17 (12):1211-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

50. [Guideline] Kajantie E, Phillips DI, Osmond C, Barker DJ, Forsén T, Eriksson JG. Spontaneous hypothyroidism in adult women is predicted by small body size at birth and during childhood. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006 Dec. 91 (12):4953-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

51. Sawin CT, Castelli WP, Hershman JM, McNamara P, Bacharach P. The aging thyroid. Thyroid deficiency in the Framingham Study. Arch Intern Med. 1985 Aug. 145 (8):1386-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

52. Winther KH, Cramon P, Watt T, Bjorner JB, Ekholm O, Feldt-Rasmussen U, et al. Disease-Specific as Well as Generic Quality of Life Is Widely Impacted in Autoimmune Hypothyroidism and Improves during the First Six Months of Levothyroxine Therapy. PLoS One. 2016. 11 (6):e0156925. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

53. Sohn SY, Seo GH, Chung JH. Risk of All-Cause Mortality in Levothyroxine-Treated Hypothyroid Patients: A Nationwide Korean Cohort Study. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021. 12:680647. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

54. Chang YC, Chang CH, Yeh YC, Chuang LM, Tu YK. Subclinical and overt hypothyroidism is associated with reduced glomerular filtration rate and proteinuria: a large cross-sectional population study. Sci Rep. 2018 Feb 1. 8 (1):2031. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

55. Tsuda S, Nakayama M, Matsukuma Y, Yoshitomi R, Haruyama N, Fukui A, et al. Subclinical hypothyroidism is independently associated with poor renal outcomes in patients with chronic kidney disease. Endocrine. 2021 Jan 20. 341(8):549-55. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

56. Almomani A, Hitawala AA, Kumar P, et al. Prevalence of hypothyroidism and effect of thyroid hormone replacement therapy in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A population-based study. World J Hepatol. 2022 Mar 27. 14 (3):551-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

57. Sato Y, Yoshihisa A, Kimishima Y, Kiko T, Watanabe S, Kanno Y, et al. Subclinical Hypothyroidism Is Associated With Adverse Prognosis in Heart Failure Patients. Can J Cardiol. 2018 Jan. 34 (1):80-87. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

58. Tsai TY, Tu YK, Munir KM, et al. Association of Hypothyroidism and Mortality in the Elderly Population: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020 Jun 1. 105 (6):[QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

59. Thvilum M, Brandt F, Lillevang-Johansen M, Folkestad L, Brix TH, Hegedüs L. Increased risk of dementia in hypothyroidism: A Danish nationwide register-based study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2021 Jun. 94 (6):1017-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

60. Zamfirescu I, Carlson HE. Absorption of levothyroxine when coadministered with various calcium formulations. Thyroid. 2011 May. 21 (5):483-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

61. Laurent I, Tang S, Astere M, et al. Liquid L-thyroxine versus tablet L-thyroxine in patients on L- thyroxine replacement or suppressive therapy: a meta-analysis. Endocrine. 2018 Jul. 61 (1):28-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

62. Virili C, Trimboli P, Romanelli F, Centanni M. Liquid and softgel levothyroxine use in clinical practice: state of the art. Endocrine. 2016 Oct. 54 (1):3-14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

63. Skelin M, Lucijanic T, Liberati-Cizmek AM, et al. Effect of timing of levothyroxine administration on the treatment of hypothyroidism: a three-period crossover randomized study. Endocrine. 2018 Nov. 62 (2):432-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

64. Pang X, Pu T, Xu L, Sun R. Effect of l-thyroxine administration before breakfast vs at bedtime on hypothyroidism: A meta-analysis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2020 May. 92 (5):475-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

65. Green ME, Bernet V, Cheung J. Thyroid Dysfunction and Sleep Disorders. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021. 12:725829. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

66. MedlinePlus. Hypothyroidism. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/hypothyroidism.html. Updated June 16, 2021; Accessed: May 23, 2022.

67. British Thyroid Foundation. Hair loss and thyroid disorders. BTF. Available at https://www.btf-thyroid.org/hair-loss-and-thyroid-disorders. Accessed: May 23, 2022.

68. Spanou I, Bougea A, Liakakis G, et al. Relationship of Migraine and Tension-Type Headache With Hypothyroidism: A Literature Review. Headache. 2019 Sep. 59 (8):1174-86. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

69. Monostra M. Fatigue common with ‘brain fog’ among adults with hypothyroidism. Healio. Available at https://www.healio.com/news/endocrinology/20210528/fatigue-common-with-brain-fog-among-adults-with-hypothyroidism. May 29, 2021; Accessed: May 24, 2022.

70. Tricarico L, Di Cesare T, Galli J, Fetoni AR, Paludetti G, Picciotti PM. Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo: is hypothyroidism a risk factor for recurrence?. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital. 2022 Feb 7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

71. Carani C, Isidori AM, Granata A, et al. Multicenter study on the prevalence of sexual symptoms in male hypo- and hyperthyroid patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005 Dec. 90 (12):6472-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

72. Bates JN, Kohn TP, Pastuszak AW. Effect of Thyroid Hormone Derangements on Sexual Function in Men and Women. Sex Med Rev. 2020 Apr. 8 (2):217-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

73. Hershman JM. Hypothyroidism. Merck Manual: Consumer Version. Available at https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/hormonal-and-metabolic-disorders/thyroid-gland-disorders/hypothyroidism. Reviewed October 2020; Accessed: May 23, 2022.

74. Piantanida E, Gallo D, Veronesi G, Pariani N, Masiello E, Premoli P, et al. Masked hypertension in newly diagnosed hypothyroidism: a pilot study. J Endocrinol Invest. 2016 Oct. 39 (10):1131-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

75. Hollowell JG, Staehling NW, Flanders WD, Hannon WH, Gunter EW, Spencer CA, et al. Serum TSH, T(4), and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Feb. 87 (2):489-99. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

76. [Guideline] Negro R, Formoso G, Mangieri T, Pezzarossa A, Dazzi D, Hassan H. Levothyroxine treatment in euthyroid pregnant women with autoimmune thyroid disease: effects on obstetrical complications. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006 Jul. 91 (7):2587-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

77. Dhillon-Smith RK, Middleton LJ, Sunner KK, et al. Levothyroxine in Women with Thyroid Peroxidase Antibodies before Conception. N Engl J Med. 2019 Apr 4. 380 (14):1316-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

78. Liu Y. Clinical significance of thyroid uptake on F18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Ann Nucl Med. 2009 Jan. 23 (1):17-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

79. Chen W, Parsons M, Torigian DA, Zhuang H, Alavi A. Evaluation of thyroid FDG uptake incidentally identified on FDG-PET/CT imaging. Nucl Med Commun. 2009 Mar. 30 (3):240-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

80. Ito M, Arishima T, Kudo T, et al. Clinical guideline, part 1. Screening for thyroid disease. American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 1998 Jul 15. 129 (2):141-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

81. Helfand M, Redfern CC. Clinical guideline, part 2. Screening for thyroid disease: an update. American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 1998 Jul 15. 129 (2):144-58. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

82. American Academy of Family Physicians. Summary of Policy Recommendations for Periodic Health Examinations. Reprint no. 510. Leawood, KS: American Academy of Family Physicians; 2002.

83. Baskin HJ, Cobin RH, Duick DS, Gharib H, Guttler RB, Kaplan MM, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the evaluation and treatment of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Endocr Pract. 2002 Nov-Dec. 8 (6):457-69. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

84. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for thyroid disease: recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2004 Jan 20. 140 (2):125-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

85. Jonklaas J, Bianco AC, Bauer AJ, Burman KD, Cappola AR, Celi FS, et al. Guidelines for the treatment of hypothyroidism: prepared by the american thyroid association task force on thyroid hormone replacement. Thyroid. 2014 Dec. 24 (12):1670-751. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

86. Melville NA. New ATA guidelines stick with levothyroxine for hypothyroidism. Medscape Medical News from WebMD. October 02, 2014. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/832682. Accessed: February 19, 2015.

87. Grozinsky-Glasberg S, Fraser A, Nahshoni E, Weizman A, Leibovici L. Thyroxine-triiodothyronine combination therapy versus thyroxine monotherapy for clinical hypothyroidism: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006 Jul. 91 (7):2592-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

88. [Guideline] Gullo D, Latina A, Frasca F, Le Moli R, Pellegriti G, Vigneri R. Levothyroxine monotherapy cannot guarantee euthyroidism in all athyreotic patients. PLoS One. 2011. 6 (8):e22552. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

89. [Guideline] McDermott MT. Does combination T4 and T3 therapy make sense?. Endocr Pract. 2012 Sep-Oct. 18 (5):750-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

90. Finken MJ, van Eijsden M, Loomans EM, Vrijkotte TG, Rotteveel J. Maternal hypothyroxinemia in early pregnancy predicts reduced performance in reaction time tests in 5- to 6-year-old offspring. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013 Apr. 98 (4):1417-26. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

91. Ge GM, Leung MTY, Man KKC, et al. Maternal Thyroid Dysfunction During Pregnancy and the Risk of Adverse Outcomes in the Offspring: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020 Dec 1. 105 (12):[QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

92. Blatt AJ, Nakamoto JM, Kaufman HW. National status of testing for hypothyroidism during pregnancy and postpartum. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012 Mar. 97 (3):777-84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

93. Dong AC, Stagnaro-Green A. Differences in Diagnostic Criteria Mask the True Prevalence of Thyroid Disease in Pregnancy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Thyroid. 2019 Feb. 29 (2):278-89. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

94. Stagnaro-Green A, Abalovich M, Alexander E, Azizi F, Mestman J, Negro R, et al. Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and postpartum. Thyroid. 2011 Oct. 21 (10):1081-125. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

95. LeBeau SO, Mandel SJ. Thyroid disorders during pregnancy. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2006 Mar. 35 (1):117-36, vii. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

96. Consortium on Thyroid and Pregnancy—Study Group on Preterm Birth., Korevaar TIM, Derakhshan A, et al. Association of Thyroid Function Test Abnormalities and Thyroid Autoimmunity With Preterm Birth: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA. 2019 Aug 20. 322 (7):632-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

97. Negro R, Formoso G, Mangieri T, Pezzarossa A, Dazzi D, Hassan H. Levothyroxine treatment in euthyroid pregnant women with autoimmune thyroid disease: effects on obstetrical complications. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006 Jul. 91 (7):2587-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

98. Velkeniers B, Van Meerhaeghe A, Poppe K, Unuane D, Tournaye H, Haentjens P. Levothyroxine treatment and pregnancy outcome in women with subclinical hypothyroidism undergoing assisted reproduction technologies: systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs. Hum Reprod Update. 2013 May-Jun. 19 (3):251-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

99. Busko M. Optimal levothyroxine doses for hypothyroidism in pregnancy. Medscape Medical News from WebMD. December 9, 2013. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/817459. Accessed: January 5, 2014.

100. Abalovich M, Vázquez A, Alcaraz G, Kitaigrodsky A, Szuman G, Calabrese C, et al. Adequate levothyroxine doses for the treatment of hypothyroidism newly discovered during pregnancy. Thyroid. 2013 Nov. 23 (11):1479-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

101. Shan Z, Teng W. Thyroid hormone therapy of hypothyroidism in pregnancy. Endocrine. 2019 Oct. 66 (1):35-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

102. Jabbar A, Ingoe L, Junejo S, et al. Effect of Levothyroxine on Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction in Patients With Subclinical Hypothyroidism and Acute Myocardial Infarction: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2020 Jul 21. 324 (3):249-58. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

103. Nazarpour S, Ramezani Tehrani F, et al. Effects of Levothyroxine on Pregnant Women With Subclinical Hypothyroidism, Negative for Thyroid Peroxidase Antibodies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2018 Mar 1. 103 (3):926-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

104. De Groot L, Abalovich M, Alexander EK, Amino N, Barbour L, Cobin RH, et al. Management of thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy and postpartum: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012 Aug. 97 (8):2543-65. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

105. Gyamfi C, Wapner RJ, D'Alton ME. Thyroid dysfunction in pregnancy: the basic science and clinical evidence surrounding the controversy in management. Obstet Gynecol. 2009 Mar. 113 (3):702-707. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

106. Rosário PW, Bessa B, Valadão MM, Purisch S. Natural history of mild subclinical hypothyroidism: prognostic value of ultrasound. Thyroid. 2009 Jan. 19 (1):9-12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

107. Ito M, Arishima T, Kudo T, Nishihara E, Ohye H, Kubota S, et al. Effect of levo-thyroxine replacement on non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in hypothyroid patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Feb. 92 (2):608-11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

108. Peleg RK, Efrati S, Benbassat C, Fygenzo M, Golik A. The effect of levothyroxine on arterial stiffness and lipid profile in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism. Thyroid. 2008 Aug. 18 (8):825-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

109. Cinemre H, Bilir C, Gokosmanoglu F, Bahcebasi T. Hematologic effects of levothyroxine in iron-deficient subclinical hypothyroid patients: a randomized, double-blind, controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009 Jan. 94 (1):151-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

110. Abreu IM, Lau E, de Sousa Pinto B, Carvalho D. Subclinical hypothyroidism: to treat or not to treat, that is the question! A systematic review with meta-analysis on lipid profile. Endocr Connect. 2017 Apr. 6 (3):188-199. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

111. Biondi B, Cappola AR, Cooper DS. Subclinical Hypothyroidism: A Review. JAMA. 2019 Jul 9. 322 (2):153-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

112. Stott DJ, Rodondi N, Kearney PM, et al. Thyroid Hormone Therapy for Older Adults with Subclinical Hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med. 2017 Jun 29. 376 (26):2534-44. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

113. Blum MR, Gencer B, Adam L, et al. Impact of Thyroid Hormone Therapy on Atherosclerosis in the Elderly With Subclinical Hypothyroidism: A Randomized Trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2018 Aug 1. 103 (8):2988-97. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

114. Gencer B, Moutzouri E, Blum MR, et al. The Impact of Levothyroxine on Cardiac Function in Older Adults With Mild Subclinical Hypothyroidism: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Am J Med. 2020 Jul. 133 (7):848-56.e5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

115. Wartofsky L. Myxedema coma. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2006 Dec. 35 (4):687-98, vii-viii. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

116. Sawin CT, Geller A, Wolf PA, et al. Low serum thyrotropin concentrations as a risk factor for atrial fibrillation in older persons. N Engl J Med. 1994 Nov 10. 331 (19):1249-52. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

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Philip R Orlander, MD, FACP Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Director, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Associate Dean for Educational Programs, Vice-Chair of Medicine for Education, Edward Randall III Chair in Internal Medicine, Program Director, Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism Fellowship Program, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School

Philip R Orlander, MD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American Diabetes Association, Endocrine Society, Harris County Medical Society, Texas Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Jeena M Varghese, MD Assistant Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrine Neoplasia and Hormonal Disorders, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center

Jeena M Varghese, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Endocrine Society, Harris County Medical Society, Texas Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Sapna Naik, MD Assistant Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, UTHealth, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School; Attending Physician, Department of Gastroenterology, Memorial Hermann Hospital – Texas Medical Center, and Lyndon B Johnson General Hospital

Sapna Naik, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, Endocrine Society, Texas Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

George T Griffing, MD Professor Emeritus of Medicine, St Louis University School of Medicine

George T Griffing, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for Physician Leadership, American Association for the Advancement of Science, American College of Medical Practice Executives, American College of Physicians, American Diabetes Association, American Federation for Medical Research, American Heart Association, Central Society for Clinical and Translational Research, Endocrine Society, International Society for Clinical Densitometry, Southern Society for Clinical Investigation

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Lance M Freeman, MD Fellow, Division of Endocrinology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Anu Bhalla Davis, MD Assistant Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology, and Metabolism, University of Texas Medical School at Houston

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Shikha Bharaktiya, MD Physician in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Endocrinology Clinics of Texas, PA

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Arthur B Chausmer, MD, PhD, FACP, FACE, FACN, CNS Professor of Medicine (Endocrinology, Adj), Johns Hopkins School of Medicine; Affiliate Research Professor, Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Program, School of Computational Sciences, George Mason University; Principal, C/A Informatics, LLC

Arthur B Chausmer, MD, PhD, FACP, FACE, FACN, CNS is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Endocrinology, American College of Nutrition, American College of Physicians, American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, American Medical Informatics Association, American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, Endocrine Society, and International Society for Clinical Densitometry

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

Walter R Woodhouse, MD, MSA Associate Clinical Professor, Department of Family Practice, Medical College of Ohio

Walter R Woodhouse, MD, MSA is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Family Physicians, American Academy of Pain Medicine, and Society of Teachers of Family Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Frederick H Ziel, MD Associate Professor of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine; Physician-In-Charge, Endocrinology/Diabetes Center, Director of Medical Education, Kaiser Permanente Woodland Hills; Chair of Endocrinology, Co-Chair of Diabetes Complete Care Program, Southern California Permanente Medical Group

Frederick H Ziel, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Endocrinology, American College of Physicians, American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, American Diabetes Association, American Federation for Medical Research, American Medical Association, American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, California Medical Association, Endocrine Society, andInternational Society for Clinical Densitometry

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

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