-
Sections Obesity
- Overview
- Presentation
- DDx
- Workup
- Treatment
- Approach Considerations
- Patient Screening, Assessment, and Expectations
- Weight-Loss Goals
- Weight-Loss Maintenance
- Treatment of Childhood Obesity
- Energy Expenditure and Weight Loss
- Conventional Diets
- Water Drinking
- Exercise Programs
- Behavioral Changes
- Antiobesity Medications
- Fat Substitutes
- Bariatric Surgery
- Inpatient Care
- Deterrence and Prevention
- Consultations
- Long-Term Monitoring
- Show All
- Guidelines
- Medication
- Questions & Answers
- Media Gallery
- References
Diagnostic Considerations
Mesomorphic body states, as seen in body builders and people in related occupations (eg, professional wrestling), may be associated with elevated BMIs, but as a result of increased muscle mass rather than excess adiposity. In addition, anasarca may be mistaken for obesity if not carefully evaluated clinically. Other conditions to consider while examining for obesity include the following:
-
Depression
-
Type 2 diabetes mellitus
-
Fatty liver
-
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
-
Hirsutism
-
Polygenic hypercholesterolemia
-
Hypothyroidism
-
Insulinoma
-
Kallmann syndrome and idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism
-
Generalized lipodystrophy
-
Polycystic ovarian disease (Stein-Leventhal syndrome)
-
Cushing syndrome
-
Adiposa dolorosa (Dercum disease)
-
Partial lipodystrophies associated with localized lipohypertrophy
Differential Diagnoses
-
Acromegaly
Roundtable on Obesity Solutions, Food and Nutrition Board, Health and Medicine Division, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Obesity in the Early Childhood Years: State of the Science and Implementation of Promising Solutions: Workshop Summary. 2016 May 23. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK368372/.
Schiller JS, Clarke TC, Norris T. Early Release of Selected Estimates Based on Data From the January–September 2017 National Health Interview Survey. National Health Interview Survey Early Release Program. 2018 Mar. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhis/earlyrelease/EarlyRelease201803.pdf.
Frellick M. US Adult Obesity Rate Jumped Over Last 20 Years. Medscape Medical News. 2018 Mar 15. [Full Text].
Wijga AH, Scholtens S, Bemelmans WJ, de Jongste JC, Kerkhof M, Schipper M, et al. Comorbidities of obesity in school children: a cross-sectional study in the PIAMA birth cohort. BMC Public Health. 2010 Apr 9. 10:184. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Li C, Ford ES, Zhao G, Croft JB, Balluz LS, Mokdad AH. Prevalence of self-reported clinically diagnosed sleep apnea according to obesity status in men and women: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005-2006. Prev Med. 2010 Jul. 51(1):18-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Katyal N, Bollu PC. Ventilation, Obesity-Hypoventilation Syndrome. 2018 Jan. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Jiao L, Berrington de Gonzalez A, Hartge P, Pfeiffer RM, Park Y, Freedman DM, et al. Body mass index, effect modifiers, and risk of pancreatic cancer: a pooled study of seven prospective cohorts. Cancer Causes Control. 2010 Aug. 21(8):1305-14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Kyrgiou M, Kalliala I, Markozannes G, et al. Adiposity and cancer at major anatomical sites: umbrella review of the literature. BMJ. 2017 Feb 28. 356:j477. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Mulcahy N. 'Strong evidence': obesity tied to 11 cancers. Medscape Medical News. 2017 Feb 28. [Full Text].
Oreopoulos A, Padwal R, McAlister FA, Ezekowitz J, Sharma AM, Kalantar-Zadeh K, et al. Association between obesity and health-related quality of life in patients with coronary artery disease. Int J Obes (Lond). 2010 Sep. 34(9):1434-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Galtier-Dereure F, Boegner C, Bringer J. Obesity and pregnancy: complications and cost. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000 May. 71(5 Suppl):1242S-8S. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wadden TA, Webb VL, Moran CH, Bailer BA. Lifestyle modification for obesity: new developments in diet, physical activity, and behavior therapy. Circulation. 2012 Mar 6. 125(9):1157-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Cawley J, Meyerhoefer C. The medical care costs of obesity: an instrumental variables approach. J Health Econ. 2012 Jan. 31(1):219-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Finkelstein EA, DiBonaventura Md, Burgess SM, Hale BC. The costs of obesity in the workplace. J Occup Environ Med. 2010 Oct. 52(10):971-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Weight Loss Markets for Products and Services. BCC Research. Available at http://www.bccresearch.com/report/weight-loss-markets-products-services-fod027c.html. Accessed: April 23, 2012.
McCall B. Adiposity-Based Chronic Disease: A New Name for Obesity?. Medscape Medical News. 2016 Dec 29. [Full Text].
Gallagher D, Heymsfield SB, Heo M, Jebb SA, Murgatroyd PR, Sakamoto Y. Healthy percentage body fat ranges: an approach for developing guidelines based on body mass index. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000 Sep. 72(3):694-701. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ward LC. Segmental bioelectrical impedance analysis: an update. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2012 Sep. 15(5):424-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Shiwaku K, Anuurad E, Enkhmaa B, Kitajima K, Yamane Y. Appropriate BMI for Asian populations. Lancet. 2004 Mar 27. 363(9414):1077. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Grundy SM, Brewer HB Jr, Cleeman JI, Smith SC Jr, Lenfant C. Definition of metabolic syndrome: Report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/American Heart Association conference on scientific issues related to definition. Circulation. 2004 Jan 27. 109(3):433-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Tan CE, Ma S, Wai D, Chew SK, Tai ES. Can we apply the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel definition of the metabolic syndrome to Asians?. Diabetes Care. 2004 May. 27(5):1182-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Tirosh A, Shai I, Afek A, Dubnov-Raz G, Ayalon N, Gordon B, et al. Adolescent BMI trajectory and risk of diabetes versus coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2011 Apr 7. 364(14):1315-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Montonen J, Boeing H, Schleicher E, Fritsche A, Pischon T. Association of changes in body mass index during earlier adulthood and later adulthood with circulating obesity biomarker concentrations in middle-aged men and women. Diabetologia. 2011 Jul. 54(7):1676-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Sugerman HJ, Kellum JM, Engle KM, Wolfe L, Starkey JV, Birkenhauer R, et al. Gastric bypass for treating severe obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992 Feb. 55(2 Suppl):560S-566S. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Sugerman HJ. Effects of increased intra-abdominal pressure in severe obesity. Surg Clin North Am. 2001 Oct. 81(5):1063-75, vi. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Losina E, Walensky RP, Reichmann WM, Holt HL, Gerlovin H, Solomon DH, et al. Impact of obesity and knee osteoarthritis on morbidity and mortality in older Americans. Ann Intern Med. 2011 Feb 15. 154(4):217-26. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Adelman RD, Restaino IG, Alon US, Blowey DL. Proteinuria and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis in severely obese adolescents. J Pediatr. 2001 Apr. 138(4):481-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kasiske BL, Napier J. Glomerular sclerosis in patients with massive obesity. Am J Nephrol. 1985. 5(1):45-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Jennette JC, Charles L, Grubb W. Glomerulomegaly and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis associated with obesity and sleep-apnea syndrome. Am J Kidney Dis. 1987 Dec. 10(6):470-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hairston KG, Bryer-Ash M, Norris JM, Haffner S, Bowden DW, Wagenknecht LE. Sleep duration and five-year abdominal fat accumulation in a minority cohort: the IRAS family study. Sleep. 2010 Mar. 33(3):289-95. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Spiegel K, Tasali E, Penev P, Van Cauter E. Brief communication: Sleep curtailment in healthy young men is associated with decreased leptin levels, elevated ghrelin levels, and increased hunger and appetite. Ann Intern Med. 2004 Dec 7. 141(11):846-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): People of Any Age with Underlying Medical Conditions. CDC. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/people-with-medical-conditions.html. Updated June 25, 2020; Accessed: June 27, 2020.
World Obesity Federation. COVID-19 and Obesity: The 2021 Atlas. Available at https://www.worldobesityday.org/assets/downloads/COVID-19-and-Obesity-The-2021-Atlas.pdf. March 2021; Accessed: March 8, 2021.
Mascarenhas L, Rahim Z. Covid-19 death rates 10 times higher in countries where most adults are overweight, report finds. CNN Health. Available at https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/04/health/obesity-covid-death-rate-intl/index.html. March 5, 2021; Accessed: March 8, 2021.
Garg S, Kim L, Whitaker M, et al. Hospitalization Rates and Characteristics of Patients Hospitalized with Laboratory-Confirmed Coronavirus Disease 2019 — COVID-NET, 14 States, March 1–30, 2020. MMWR. 2020 Apr 8. [Full Text].
Lighter J, Phillips M, Hochman S, et al. Obesity in patients younger than 60 years is a risk factor for Covid-19 hospital admission. Clin Infect Dis. 2020 Apr 9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Daveport L, Nainggolan L. Obesity Link to Severe COVID-19, Especially in the Under 60s. Medscape Medical News. 2020 Apr 16. [Full Text].
Kass DA, Duggal P, Cingolani O. Obesity could shift severe COVID-19 disease to younger ages. Lancet. 2020 May 4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Salamon M. Obesity Can Shift Severe COVID-19 to Younger Age Groups. Medscape Medical News. 2020 May 11. [Full Text].
Cai Q, Chen F, Wang T, et al. Obesity and COVID-19 Severity in a Designated Hospital in Shenzhen, China. Diabetes Care. 2020 May 14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Gao F, Zheng KI, Wang XB, et al. Obesity Is a Risk Factor for Greater COVID-19 Severity. Diabetes Care. 2020 May 14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Tucker ME. 'The Story Unfolding Is Worrisome' for Diabetes and COVID-19. Medscape Medical News. 2020 May 26. [Full Text].
Foulkes AS, Selvaggi C, Shinnick D, et al. Understanding the Link Between Obesity and Severe COVID-19 Outcomes: Causal Mediation by Systemic Inflammatory Response. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022 Jan 18. 107 (2):e698-e707. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kompaniyets L, Goodman AB, Brook B, et al. Body Mass Index and Risk for COVID-19–Related Hospitalization, Intensive Care Unit Admission, Invasive Mechanical Ventilation, and Death — United States, March–December 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021 8 Mar. [Full Text].
McNamara D. CDC Data Strengthens Link Between Obesity and Severe COVID. Medscape Medical News. 2021 Mar 8. [Full Text].
Gao M, Piernas C, Astbury NM, et al. Associations between body-mass index and COVID-19 severity in 6·9 million people in England: a prospective, community-based, cohort study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2021 Apr 28. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Melville NA. COVID-19 Severity Starts in Normal BMI Range, Especially in Young. Medscape Medical News. 2021 May 5. [Full Text].
Szatmary P, Arora A, Raraty MGT, Dunne DFJ, Baron RD, Halloran CM. Emerging phenotype of SARS-CoV2 associated pancreatitis. Gastroenterology. 2020 Jun 1. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Pass W. COVID-associated pancreatitis may disproportionately affect young, overweight men. MDedge Family Medicine. 2020 Jun 24. [Full Text].
McCall B. Obesity Is Deadlier in Men With COVID-19 Than in Women. Medscape Medical News. 2021 May 6. [Full Text].
Guerson-Gil A, Palaiodimos L, Assa A, et al. Sex-specific impact of severe obesity in the outcomes of hospitalized patients with COVID-19: a large retrospective study from the Bronx, New York. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2021 May 6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Busko M. Obesity Biggest Risk for COVID-19 Pneumonia, After Age, Male Sex. Medscape Medical News. 2020 Nov 5. [Full Text].
Aminian A, Bena J, Pantalone KM, Burguera B. Association of obesity with postacute sequelae of COVID-19. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2021 Sep. 23 (9):2183-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Melville NA. Obesity Increases Risk for Long-COVID, Study Finds. WebMD Health News. 2021 Jun 8. [Full Text].
Yao R, Ananth CV, Park BY, Pereira L, Plante LA, for the Perinatal Research Consortium. Obesity and the risk of stillbirth: a population-based cohort study [abstract]. Presented at: The 2014 SMFM Annual Meeting; February 3-8, 2014; New Orleans, LA. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2014. 210:[Full Text].
Hackethal V. Obese women may have 25% increased risk for stillbirth. Medscape Medical News. March 27, 2014. [Full Text].
Cameron NA, Petito LC, McCabe M, et al. Quantifying the Sex-Race/Ethnicity-Specific Burden of Obesity on Incident Diabetes Mellitus in the United States, 2001 to 2016: MESA and NHANES. J Am Heart Assoc. 2021 Feb 16. 10 (4):e018799. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Zoler ML. Obesity Pegged as Diabetes Cause in Almost Half of US Cases. Medscape Medical News. 2021 Feb 18. [Full Text].
Abdullah A, Amin FA, Hanum F, et al. Estimating the risk of type-2 diabetes using obese-years in a contemporary population of the Framingham Study. Glob Health Action. 2016. 9:30421. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
McCall B. New Genes Hold Clue to Why Many With Obesity Don't Get Diabetes. Medscape Medical News. 2018 Mar 19. [Full Text].
Evangelista LS, Cho WK, Kim Y. Obesity and chronic kidney disease: a population-based study among South Koreans. PLoS One. 2018. 13 (2):e0193559. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Martinelli CE, Keogh JM, Greenfield JR, Henning E, van der Klaauw AA, Blackwood A, et al. Obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) deficiency is associated with increased linear growth and final height, fasting hyperinsulinemia, and incompletely suppressed growth hormone secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011 Jan. 96(1):E181-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hamdy O. The role of adipose tissue as an endocrine gland. Curr Diab Rep. 2005 Oct. 5(5):317-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bays H, Blonde L, Rosenson R. Adiposopathy: how do diet, exercise and weight loss drug therapies improve metabolic disease in overweight patients?. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2006 Nov. 4(6):871-95. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ketterer C, Heni M, Thamer C, Herzberg-Schäfer SA, Häring HU, Fritsche A. Acute, short-term hyperinsulinemia increases olfactory threshold in healthy subjects. Int J Obes (Lond). 2011 Aug. 35(8):1135-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lieb W, Sullivan LM, Harris TB, Roubenoff R, Benjamin EJ, Levy D, et al. Plasma leptin levels and incidence of heart failure, cardiovascular disease, and total mortality in elderly individuals. Diabetes Care. 2009 Apr. 32(4):612-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Birketvedt GS, Florholmen J, Sundsfjord J, Osterud B, Dinges D, Bilker W, et al. Behavioral and neuroendocrine characteristics of the night-eating syndrome. JAMA. 1999 Aug 18. 282(7):657-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Murray PG, Read A, Banerjee I, Whatmore AJ, Pritchard LE, Davies RA, et al. Reduced appetite and body mass index with delayed puberty in a mother and son: association with a rare novel sequence variant in the leptin gene. Eur J Endocrinol. 2011 Apr. 164(4):521-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Physical Activity: Facts about Physical Activity. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/data/facts.html. Accessed: January 9, 2013.
Maripuu M, Wikgren M, Karling P, Adolfsson R, Norrback KF. Relative hypocortisolism is associated with obesity and the metabolic syndrome in recurrent affective disorders. J Affect Disord. 2016 Jun 21. 204:187-196. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Tester JM, Phan TT, Tucker JM, et al. Characteristics of Children 2 to 5 Years of Age With Severe Obesity. Pediatrics. 2018 Feb 27. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bouchard C, Tremblay A, Després JP, Nadeau A, Lupien PJ, Thériault G, et al. The response to long-term overfeeding in identical twins. N Engl J Med. 1990 May 24. 322(21):1477-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Freeman E, Fletcher R, Collins CE, et al. Preventing and treating childhood obesity: time to target fathers. Int J Obes (Lond). 2012 Jan. 36(1):12-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chambers JC, Elliott P, Zabaneh D, Zhang W, Li Y, Froguel P, et al. Common genetic variation near MC4R is associated with waist circumference and insulin resistance. Nat Genet. 2008 Jun. 40(6):716-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Frayling TM, Ong K. Piecing together the FTO jigsaw. Genome Biol. 2011. 12(2):104. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Loos RJ, Lindgren CM, Li S, Wheeler E, Zhao JH, Prokopenko I, et al. Common variants near MC4R are associated with fat mass, weight and risk of obesity. Nat Genet. 2008 Jun. 40(6):768-75. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Scuteri A, Sanna S, Chen WM, Uda M, Albai G, Strait J, et al. Genome-wide association scan shows genetic variants in the FTO gene are associated with obesity-related traits. PLoS Genet. 2007 Jul. 3(7):e115. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Day FR, Loos RJ. Developments in obesity genetics in the era of genome-wide association studies. J Nutrigenet Nutrigenomics. 2011. 4(4):222-38. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Reinehr T, Kleber M, de Sousa G, et al. Leptin concentrations are a predictor of overweight reduction in a lifestyle intervention. Int J Pediatr Obes. May 13 2009;1-9:[QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cummings DE, Schwartz MW. Melanocortins and body weight: a tale of two receptors. Nat Genet. 2000 Sep. 26(1):8-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Vaisse C, Clement K, Durand E, Hercberg S, Guy-Grand B, Froguel P. Melanocortin-4 receptor mutations are a frequent and heterogeneous cause of morbid obesity. J Clin Invest. 2000 Jul. 106(2):253-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Wardlaw SL. Clinical review 127: Obesity as a neuroendocrine disease: lessons to be learned from proopiomelanocortin and melanocortin receptor mutations in mice and men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001 Apr. 86(4):1442-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gibson WT, Farooqi IS, Moreau M, DePaoli AM, Lawrence E, O'Rahilly S, et al. Congenital leptin deficiency due to homozygosity for the Delta133G mutation: report of another case and evaluation of response to four years of leptin therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004 Oct. 89(10):4821-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Abbasi A, Corpeleijn E, Postmus D, Gansevoort RT, de Jong PE, Gans RO, et al. Plasma procalcitonin is associated with obesity, insulin resistance, and the metabolic syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010 Sep. 95(9):E26-31. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Yaemsiri S, Slining MM, Agarwal SK. Perceived weight status, overweight diagnosis, and weight control among US adults: the NHANES 2003-2008 Study. Int J Obes (Lond). 2011 Aug. 35(8):1063-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Laidman J. Obesity's Toll: 1 in 5 Deaths Linked to Excess Weight. Medscape Medical News. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/809516. Accessed: August 21, 2013.
Masters RK, Reither EN, Powers DA, Yang YC, Burger AE, Link BG. The Impact of Obesity on US Mortality Levels: The Importance of Age and Cohort Factors in Population Estimates. Am J Public Health. 2013 Aug 15.
Ludwig J, Sanbonmatsu L, Gennetian L, et al. Neighborhoods, obesity, and diabetes--a randomized social experiment. N Engl J Med. 2011 Oct 20. 365(16):1509-19. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Molarius A, Seidell JC, Sans S, Tuomilehto J, Kuulasmaa K. Varying sensitivity of waist action levels to identify subjects with overweight or obesity in 19 populations of the WHO MONICA Project. J Clin Epidemiol. 1999 Dec. 52(12):1213-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Molarius A, Seidell JC, Sans S, Tuomilehto J, Kuulasmaa K. Waist and hip circumferences, and waist-hip ratio in 19 populations of the WHO MONICA Project. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999 Feb. 23(2):116-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
NCD Risk Factor Collaboration. Worldwide trends in body-mass index, underweight, overweight, and obesity from 1975 to 2016: a pooled analysis of 2416 population-based measurement studies in 128.9 million children, adolescents, and adults. Lancet. 2017 Oct 10. [Full Text].
McCall B. Obesity Soars 10-Fold in Kids; With Underweight It's a 'Double Burden'. Medscape Medical News. Oct 11, 2017. [Full Text].
Finucane MM, Stevens GA, Cowan MJ, Danaei G, Lin JK, Paciorek CJ, et al. National, regional, and global trends in body-mass index since 1980: systematic analysis of health examination surveys and epidemiological studies with 960 country-years and 9·1 million participants. Lancet. 2011 Feb 12. 377(9765):557-67. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Neel JV. The "thrifty genotype" in 1998. Nutr Rev. 1999 May. 57(5 Pt 2):S2-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Metcalf BS, Hosking J, Frémeaux AE, Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. BMI was right all along: taller children really are fatter (implications of making childhood BMI independent of height) EarlyBird 48. Int J Obes (Lond). 2011 Apr. 35(4):541-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
The NS, Suchindran C, North KE, Popkin BM, Gordon-Larsen P. Association of adolescent obesity with risk of severe obesity in adulthood. JAMA. 2010 Nov 10. 304(18):2042-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Allison DB, Fontaine KR, Manson JE, Stevens J, VanItallie TB. Annual deaths attributable to obesity in the United States. JAMA. 1999 Oct 27. 282(16):1530-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
[Guideline] Expert Panel on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight Adults. Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults: executive summary. Expert Panel on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight in Adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998 Oct. 68(4):899-917. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bray GA. Health hazards of obesity. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 1996 Dec. 25(4):907-19. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Flegal KM, Graubard BI, Williamson DF, Gail MH. Excess deaths associated with underweight, overweight, and obesity. JAMA. 2005 Apr 20. 293(15):1861-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Zheng W, McLerran DF, Rolland B, Zhang X, Inoue M, Matsuo K, et al. Association between body-mass index and risk of death in more than 1 million Asians. N Engl J Med. 2011 Feb 24. 364(8):719-29. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Berrington de Gonzalez A, Hartge P, Cerhan JR, Flint AJ, Hannan L, MacInnis RJ, et al. Body-mass index and mortality among 1.46 million white adults. N Engl J Med. 2010 Dec 2. 363(23):2211-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Boggs DA, Rosenberg L, Cozier YC, Wise LA, Coogan PF, Ruiz-Narvaez EA, et al. General and abdominal obesity and risk of death among black women. N Engl J Med. 2011 Sep 8. 365(10):901-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Jung JH, Ahn SV, Song JM, et al. Obesity as a Risk Factor for Prostatic Enlargement: A Retrospective Cohort Study in Korea. Int Neurourol J. 2016 Dec. 20 (4):321-328. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Stessman J, Jacobs JM, Ein-Mor E, Bursztyn M. Normal body mass index rather than obesity predicts greater mortality in elderly people: the Jerusalem longitudinal study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2009 Dec. 57(12):2232-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Tamakoshi A, Yatsuya H, Lin Y, Tamakoshi K, Kondo T, Suzuki S, et al. BMI and all-cause mortality among Japanese older adults: findings from the Japan collaborative cohort study. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2010 Feb. 18(2):362-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wadden TA, Neiberg RH, Wing RR, Clark JM, Delahanty LM, Hill JO, et al. Four-year weight losses in the Look AHEAD study: factors associated with long-term success. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2011 Oct. 19(10):1987-98. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Elbel B, Gyamfi J, Kersh R. Child and adolescent fast-food choice and the influence of calorie labeling: a natural experiment. Int J Obes (Lond). 2011 Apr. 35(4):493-500. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Waters E, de Silva-Sanigorski A, Hall BJ, et al. Interventions for preventing obesity in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Dec 7. 12:CD001871. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists Statement on the Use of A1C for the Diagnosis of Diabetes. Available at http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/117853-workup. Accessed: August 6 2012.
[Guideline] Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2010 Jan. 33 Suppl 1:S62-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
[Guideline] Jensen MD, Ryan DH, Apovian CM, et al. 2013 AHA/ACC/TOS guideline for the management of overweight and obesity in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and The Obesity Society. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Nainggolan L. New obesity guidelines: authoritative 'roadmap' to treatment. Medscape Medical News. November 12, 2013. [Full Text].
Tucker ME. New US obesity guidelines. Treat the weight first. Medscape Medical News. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/838285.
Apovian CM, Aronne LJ, Bessesen DH, et al. Pharmacological management of obesity: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015 Feb. 100(2):342-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Jolly K, Lewis A, Beach J, et al. Comparison of range of commercial or primary care led weight reduction programmes with minimal intervention control for weight loss in obesity: Lighten Up randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2011 Nov 3. 343:d6500. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Bray GA. Medications for weight reduction. Med Clin North Am. 2011 Sep. 95(5):989-1008. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wing RR, Lang W, Wadden TA, Safford M, Knowler WC, Bertoni AG, et al. Benefits of modest weight loss in improving cardiovascular risk factors in overweight and obese individuals with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2011 Jul. 34(7):1481-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Stolley MR, Fitzgibbon ML, Schiffer L, Sharp LK, Singh V, Van Horn L, et al. Obesity reduction black intervention trial (ORBIT): six-month results. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2009 Jan. 17(1):100-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Larsen TM, Dalskov SM, van Baak M, Jebb SA, Papadaki A, Pfeiffer AF, et al. Diets with high or low protein content and glycemic index for weight-loss maintenance. N Engl J Med. 2010 Nov 25. 363(22):2102-13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Blüher M, Rudich A, Kloting N, et al. Two patterns of adipokine and other biomarker dynamics in a long-term weight loss intervention. Diabetes Care. 2012 Feb. 35(2):342-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Sumithran P, Prendergast LA, Delbridge E, et al. Long-term persistence of hormonal adaptations to weight loss. N Engl J Med. 2011 Oct 27. 365(17):1597-604. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hamdy O, Mottalib A, Morsi A, et al. Long-term effect of intensive lifestyle intervention on cardiovascular risk factors in patients with diabetes in real-world clinical practice: a 5-year longitudinal study. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care. 2017. 5:e000259. [Full Text].
Maffeis C. Childhood obesity: the genetic-environmental interface. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999 Apr. 13(1):31-46. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Proimos J, Sawyer S. Obesity in childhood and adolescence. Aust Fam Physician. 2000 Apr. 29(4):321-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Harsha DW, Bray GA. Body composition and childhood obesity. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 1996 Dec. 25(4):871-85. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Clement K, van den Akker E, Argente J, et al. Efficacy and safety of setmelanotide, an MC4R agonist, in individuals with severe obesity due to LEPR or POMC deficiency: single-arm, open-label, multicentre, phase 3 trials. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2020 Dec. 8 (12):960-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Imcivree (setmelanotide) [package insert]. Boston, MA: Rhythm Pharmaceuticals, Inc. November 2020. Available at [Full Text].
Older Adults and the Elderly. In: Human Energy Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation. Rome, 17-24 October 2001. Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN. Available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5686e/y5686e09.htm#bm9.
Brooks M. Standard '1-MET' Value Invalid in Overweight/Obese. Medscape Medical News. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/821375. Accessed: March 10, 2014.
Wilms B, Ernst B, Thurnheer M, Weisser B, Schultes B. Correction factors for the calculation of metabolic equivalents (MET) in overweight to extremely obese subjects. Int J Obes (Lond). 2014 Feb 7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Foster GD, Wyatt HR, Hill JO, Makris AP, Rosenbaum DL, Brill C, et al. Weight and metabolic outcomes after 2 years on a low-carbohydrate versus low-fat diet: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2010 Aug 3. 153(3):147-57. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Shai I, Schwarzfuchs D, Henkin Y, Shahar DR, Witkow S, Greenberg I, et al. Weight loss with a low-carbohydrate, Mediterranean, or low-fat diet. N Engl J Med. 2008 Jul 17. 359(3):229-41.
Dansinger ML, Gleason JA, Griffith JL, Selker HP, Schaefer EJ. Comparison of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone diets for weight loss and heart disease risk reduction: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2005 Jan 5. 293(1):43-53. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Very low calorie diets. Drug Ther Bull. 2012 May. 50(5):54-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Van Nieuwenhove Y, Dambrauskas Z, Campillo-Soto A, van Dielen F, Wiezer R, Janssen I, et al. Preoperative very low-calorie diet and operative outcome after laparoscopic gastric bypass: a randomized multicenter study. Arch Surg. 2011 Nov. 146(11):1300-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Dennis EA, Dengo AL, Comber DL, Flack KD, Savla J, Davy KP, et al. Water consumption increases weight loss during a hypocaloric diet intervention in middle-aged and older adults. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2010 Feb. 18(2):300-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Dubnov-Raz G, Constantini NW, Yariv H, Nice S, Shapira N. Influence of water drinking on resting energy expenditure in overweight children. Int J Obes (Lond). 2011 Oct. 35(10):1295-300. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wiesner S, Haufe S, Engeli S, Mutschler H, Haas U, Luft FC, et al. Influences of normobaric hypoxia training on physical fitness and metabolic risk markers in overweight to obese subjects. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2010 Jan. 18(1):116-20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Jakicic JM, Marcus BH, Lang W, Janney C. Effect of exercise on 24-month weight loss maintenance in overweight women. Arch Intern Med. 2008 Jul 28. 168(14):1550-9; discussion 1559-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Ballor DL, Poehlman ET. Exercise-training enhances fat-free mass preservation during diet-induced weight loss: a meta-analytical finding. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1994 Jan. 18(1):35-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Villareal DT, Chode S, Parimi N, Sinacore DR, Hilton T, Armamento-Villareal R, et al. Weight loss, exercise, or both and physical function in obese older adults. N Engl J Med. 2011 Mar 31. 364(13):1218-29. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Goodpaster BH, Delany JP, Otto AD, Kuller L, Vockley J, South-Paul JE, et al. Effects of diet and physical activity interventions on weight loss and cardiometabolic risk factors in severely obese adults: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2010 Oct 27. 304(16):1795-802. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Hankinson AL, Daviglus ML, Bouchard C, Carnethon M, Lewis CE, Schreiner PJ, et al. Maintaining a high physical activity level over 20 years and weight gain. JAMA. 2010 Dec 15. 304(23):2603-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Rejeski WJ, Brubaker PH, Goff DC Jr, Bearon LB, McClelland JW, Perri MG, et al. Translating weight loss and physical activity programs into the community to preserve mobility in older, obese adults in poor cardiovascular health. Arch Intern Med. 2011 May 23. 171(10):880-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Van Dorsten B, Lindley EM. Cognitive and behavioral approaches in the treatment of obesity. Med Clin North Am. 2011 Sep. 95(5):971-88. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Morgan PJ, Lubans DR, Callister R, Okely AD, Burrows TL, Fletcher R, et al. The 'Healthy Dads, Healthy Kids' randomized controlled trial: efficacy of a healthy lifestyle program for overweight fathers and their children. Int J Obes (Lond). 2011 Mar. 35(3):436-47. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Mozaffarian D, Hao T, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in diet and lifestyle and long-term weight gain in women and men. N Engl J Med. 2011 Jun 23. 364(25):2392-404. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Nedeltcheva AV, Kilkus JM, Imperial J, Schoeller DA, Penev PD. Insufficient sleep undermines dietary efforts to reduce adiposity. Ann Intern Med. 2010 Oct 5. 153(7):435-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
FDA Expands Warning to Consumers About Tainted Weight Loss Pills. US Food and Drug Administration. January 8, 2009. Available at http://www.fda.gov/newsevents/newsroom/pressannouncements/2008/ucm116998.htm. Accessed: January, 2013.
United States Food and Drug Administration. BMPEA in Dietary Supplements. Available at http://www.fda.gov/Food/DietarySupplements/QADietarySupplements/ucm443790.htm. Accessed: 2015 April 27.
Busko M. FDA Approves 'Gamechanger' Semaglutide for Weight Loss. Medscape Medical News. 2021 Jun 4. [Full Text].
Rubino D, Abrahamsson N, Davies M, et al. Effect of Continued Weekly Subcutaneous Semaglutide vs Placebo on Weight Loss Maintenance in Adults With Overweight or Obesity: The STEP 4 Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2021 Apr 13. 325 (14):1414-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wilding JPH, Batterham RL, Calanna S, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity. N Engl J Med. 2021 Mar 18. 384 (11):989. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
FDA News Release. FDA approves weight-management drug Saxenda. Available at http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm427913.htm. Accessed: December 23, 2014.
Heck AM, Yanovski JA, Calis KA. Orlistat, a new lipase inhibitor for the management of obesity. Pharmacotherapy. 2000 Mar. 20(3):270-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
US Food and Drug Administrion. FDA requests the withdrawal of the weight-loss drug Belviq, Belviq XR (lorcaserin) from the market. FDA. Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-requests-withdrawal-weight-loss-drug-belviq-belviq-xr-lorcaserin-market?utm_campaign=FDA%20requests%20the%20withdrawal%20of%20the%20weight-loss%20drug%20Belviq%2C%20Belviq%20XR%20%28lorcaserin%29&. Feb 13, 2020; Accessed: Feb 14, 2020.
US Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves Belviq to treat some overweight or obese adults. June 27, 2012. Available at http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm309993.htm. Accessed: July 12, 2012.
Schedules of Controlled Substances: Placement of Lorcaserin Into Schedule IV. Drug Enforcement Administration. Available at http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/rules/2012/fr1219.htm. Accessed: December 28, 2012.
Smith SR, Weissman NJ, Anderson CM, Sanchez M, Chuang E, Stubbe S, et al. Multicenter, placebo-controlled trial of lorcaserin for weight management. N Engl J Med. 2010 Jul 15. 363(3):245-56. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Fidler MC, Sanchez M, Raether B, Weissman NJ, Smith SR, Shanahan WR, et al. A one-year randomized trial of lorcaserin for weight loss in obese and overweight adults: the BLOSSOM trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011 Oct. 96(10):3067-77. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
O'Neil PM, Smith SR, Weissman NJ, Fidler MC, Sanchez M, Zhang J, et al. Randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of lorcaserin for weight loss in type 2 diabetes mellitus: the BLOOM-DM study. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2012 Jul. 20(7):1426-36. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Serretti A, Mandelli L. Antidepressants and body weight: a comprehensive review and meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010 Oct. 71(10):1259-72. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Goldfield GS, Lorello C, Doucet E. Methylphenidate reduces energy intake and dietary fat intake in adults: a mechanism of reduced reinforcing value of food?. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Aug. 86(2):308-15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gadde KM, Franciscy DM, Wagner HR 2nd, Krishnan KR. Zonisamide for weight loss in obese adults: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2003 Apr 9. 289(14):1820-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lustig RH, Hinds PS, Ringwald-Smith K, Christensen RK, Kaste SC, Schreiber RE, et al. Octreotide therapy of pediatric hypothalamic obesity: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Jun. 88(6):2586-92. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Desilets AR, Dhakal-Karki S, Dunican KC. Role of metformin for weight management in patients without type 2 diabetes. Ann Pharmacother. 2008 Jun. 42(6):817-26. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Vilsbøll T, Christensen M, Junker AE, Knop FK, Gluud LL. Effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists on weight loss: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. BMJ. 2012 Jan 10. 344:d7771. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Gadde KM, Xiong GL. Bupropion for weight reduction. Expert Rev Neurother. 2007 Jan. 7(1):17-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Black SC. Cannabinoid receptor antagonists and obesity. Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 2004 Apr. 5(4):389-94. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Van Gaal LF, Rissanen AM, Scheen AJ, et al. Effects of the cannabinoid-1 receptor blocker rimonabant on weight reduction and cardiovascular risk factors in overweight patients: 1-year experience from the RIO-Europe study. Lancet. Apr 16-22 2005. 365(9468):1389-97.
Cox SL. Rimonabant hydrochloride: an investigational agent for the management of cardiovascular risk factors. Drugs Today (Barc). 2005 Aug. 41(8):499-508. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Fernandez JR, Allison DB. Rimonabant Sanofi-Synthélabo. Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 2004 Apr. 5(4):430-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Nagao T, Meguro S, Hase T, Otsuka K, Komikado M, Tokimitsu I, et al. A catechin-rich beverage improves obesity and blood glucose control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2009 Feb. 17(2):310-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Dunican KC, Adams NM, Desilets AR. The role of pramlintide for weight loss. Ann Pharmacother. 2010 Mar. 44(3):538-45. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Batterham RL, Cohen MA, Ellis SM, Le Roux CW, Withers DJ, Frost GS, et al. Inhibition of food intake in obese subjects by peptide YY3-36. N Engl J Med. 2003 Sep 4. 349(10):941-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Boggiano MM, Chandler PC, Oswald KD, Rodgers RJ, Blundell JE, Ishii Y. PYY3-36 as an anti-obesity drug target. Obes Rev. 2005 Nov. 6(4):307-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Roth CL, Enriori PJ, Harz K, Woelfle J, Cowley MA, Reinehr T. Peptide YY is a regulator of energy homeostasis in obese children before and after weight loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005 Dec. 90(12):6386-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Moon HS, Matarese G, Brennan AM, Chamberland JP, Liu X, Fiorenza CG, et al. Efficacy of metreleptin in obese patients with type 2 diabetes: cellular and molecular pathways underlying leptin tolerance. Diabetes. 2011 Jun. 60(6):1647-56. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Ravussin E, Smith SR, Mitchell JA, Shringarpure R, Shan K, Maier H, et al. Enhanced weight loss with pramlintide/metreleptin: an integrated neurohormonal approach to obesity pharmacotherapy. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2009 Sep. 17(9):1736-43. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Tam CS, Lecoultre V, Ravussin E. Novel strategy for the use of leptin for obesity therapy. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2011 Dec. 11(12):1677-85. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Sjöström L, Peltonen M, Jacobson P, Sjöström CD, Karason K, Wedel H, et al. Bariatric surgery and long-term cardiovascular events. JAMA. 2012 Jan 4. 307(1):56-65. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Flum DR, Belle SH, King WC, Wahed AS, Berk P, Chapman W, et al. Perioperative safety in the longitudinal assessment of bariatric surgery. N Engl J Med. 2009 Jul 30. 361(5):445-54. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Maggard MA, Shugarman LR, Suttorp M, Maglione M, Sugerman HJ, Livingston EH, et al. Meta-analysis: surgical treatment of obesity. Ann Intern Med. 2005 Apr 5. 142(7):547-59. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Tucker ME. New Bariatric Surgery Guidelines Reflect Rapidly Evolving Field. Medscape Medical News. Mar 28 2013. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/781619. Accessed: Apr 3 2013.
Fiore K. New Guidelines for Weight-Loss Surgery Upgrade Sleeve Procedure. MedPage Today. Available at http://www.medpagetoday.com/Endocrinology/Obesity/38112?utm_content=&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=DailyHeadlines&utm_source=WC&xid=NL_DHE_2013-03-28&eun=g648601d0r&userid=648601&email=lsoler@webmd.net&mu_id=5780408. Accessed: Apr 3 2013.
Mechanick JI, Youdim A, Jones DB, Garvey WT, Hurley DL, McMahon MM, et al. Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Perioperative Nutritional, Metabolic, and Nonsurgical Support of the Bariatric Surgery Patient - 2013 Update: Cosponsored by American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, The Obesity Society, and American Society for Metabolic & Bariatric Surgery. Endocr Pract. 2013 Mar 25. e1-e36. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ashley S, Bird DL, Sugden G, Royston CM. Vertical banded gastroplasty for the treatment of morbid obesity. Br J Surg. 1993 Nov. 80(11):1421-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Flickinger EG, Pories WJ, Meelheim HD, Sinar DR, Blose IL, Thomas FT. The Greenville gastric bypass. Progress report at 3 years. Ann Surg. 1984 May. 199(5):555-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Plecka Östlund M, Marsk R, Rasmussen F, Lagergren J, Näslund E. Morbidity and mortality before and after bariatric surgery for morbid obesity compared with the general population. Br J Surg. 2011 Jun. 98(6):811-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Mingrone G, Panunzi S, De Gaetano A, Guidone C, Iaconelli A, Leccesi L, et al. Bariatric surgery versus conventional medical therapy for type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2012 Apr 26. 366(17):1577-85. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Søvik TT, Aasheim ET, Taha O, Engström M, Fagerland MW, Björkman S, et al. Weight loss, cardiovascular risk factors, and quality of life after gastric bypass and duodenal switch: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2011 Sep 6. 155(5):281-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hedberg J, Sundbom M. Superior weight loss and lower HbA1c 3 years after duodenal switch compared with Roux-en-Y gastric bypass--a randomized controlled trial. Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2012 May-Jun. 8(3):338-43. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Schiavon CA, Bersch-Ferreira AC, Santucci EV, et al. Effects of Bariatric Surgery in Obese Patients With Hypertension: The GATEWAY Randomized Trial (Gastric Bypass to Treat Obese Patients With Steady Hypertension). Circulation. 2017 Nov 13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Stiles S. Bariatric Surgery Can Lead to HTN 'Remission' in Obese: GATEWAY. Medscape. 2017 Nov 13. [Full Text].
Cigaina V. Gastric pacing as therapy for morbid obesity: preliminary results. Obes Surg. 2002 Apr. 12 Suppl 1:12S-16S. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Klein S, Fontana L, Young VL, et al. Absence of an effect of liposuction on insulin action and risk factors for coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. Jun 17 2004. 350(25):2549-57.
Koch TR, Finelli FC. Postoperative metabolic and nutritional complications of bariatric surgery. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2010 Mar. 39(1):109-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Powell-Wiley TM, Poirier P, Burke LE, et al. Obesity and Cardiovascular Disease: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2021 Apr 22. CIR0000000000000973. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Kirkner RM. AHA statement on obesity emphasizes abdominal fat, AFib. MDedge. 2021 Apr 22. [Full Text].
Muniraj T, Day LW, Teigen LM, et al. AGA Clinical Practice Guidelines on Intragastric Balloons in the Management of Obesity. Gastroenterology. 2021 Apr. 160 (5):1799-1808. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Karon A. AGA Clinical Practice Guidelines: intragastric balloons in the management of obesity. MDedge. 2021 Apr 16. [Full Text].
Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Kit BK, Ogden CL. Prevalence of obesity and trends in the distribution of body mass index among US adults, 1999-2010. JAMA. 2012 Feb 1. 307(5):491-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Kit BK, Flegal KM. Prevalence of obesity and trends in body mass index among US children and adolescents, 1999-2010. JAMA. 2012 Feb 1. 307(5):483-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Abbott Laboratories agrees to withdraw its obesity drug Meridia. FDA, U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Available at http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm228812.htm. Accessed: October 8, 2010.
Anderson JW, Jhaveri MA. Reductions in medications with substantial weight loss with behavioral intervention. Curr Clin Pharmacol. 2010 Nov. 5(4):232-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves weight-management drug Qsymia. Available at http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm312468.htm. Accessed: August 7, 2012.
Grudell AB, Sweetser S, Camilleri M, Eckert DJ, Vazquez-Roque MI, Carlson PJ, et al. A controlled pharmacogenetic trial of sibutramine on weight loss and body composition in obese or overweight adults. Gastroenterology. 2008 Oct. 135(4):1142-54. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
James WP, Caterson ID, Coutinho W, Finer N, Van Gaal LF, Maggioni AP, et al. Effect of sibutramine on cardiovascular outcomes in overweight and obese subjects. N Engl J Med. 2010 Sep 2. 363(10):905-17. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Laidman J. Obesity Thresholds Accurately Predict Adolescent Health Risk. Medscape Medical News. Jan 29 2014. [Full Text].
Laurson KR, Welk GJ, Eisenmann JC. Diagnostic performance of BMI percentiles to identify adolescents with metabolic syndrome. Pediatrics. 2014 Feb. 133(2):e330-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Makowski CT, Gwinn KM, Hurren KM. Naltrexone/bupropion: an investigational combination for weight loss and maintenance. Obes Facts. 2011. 4(6):489-94. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Nainggolan L. Gastric band is first step surgery for morbidly obese teens. Medscape Medical News. May 29, 2014. [Full Text].
Nainggolan L. FDA Approves Bupropion/Naltrexone (Contrave) for Obesity. Medscape Medical News. Available at http://www.staging.medscape.com/viewarticle/831513. Accessed: September 14, 2014.
Schauer PR, Kashyap SR, Wolski K, Brethauer SA, Kirwan JP, Pothier CE, et al. Bariatric surgery versus intensive medical therapy in obese patients with diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2012 Apr 26. 366(17):1567-76. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Sjostrom L, Narbro K, Sjostrom CD, et al. Effects of bariatric surgery on mortality in Swedish obese subjects. N Engl J Med. 2007 Aug 23. 357(8):741-52. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kelly AS, Auerbach P, Barrientos-Perez M, et al. A Randomized, Controlled Trial of Liraglutide for Adolescents with Obesity. N Engl J Med. 2020 May 28. 382 (22):2117-28. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Weghuber D, Barrett T, Barrientos-Perez M, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adolescents with Obesity. N Engl J Med. 2022 Dec 15. 387 (24):2245-57. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
-
Central nervous system neurocircuitry for satiety and feeding cycles.
-
Comorbidities of obesity.
-
Energy balance equation.
-
Secondary causes of obesity.
Tables
Osama Hamdy, MD, PhD Medical Director, Obesity Clinical Program, Director of Inpatient Diabetes Program, Joslin Diabetes Center; Associate Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School
Osama Hamdy, MD, PhD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American Diabetes Association
Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: on advisory panel of Astra-Zeneca Inc<br/>Received research grant from: USDA Dairy Council <br/>Have a 5% or greater equity interest in: HealthyMation Inc<br/>Received consulting fee from Merck Inc for teaching; Received consulting fee from Abbott Nutrition for consulting; for: Receieved consulting fee Sanofi Aventis for teaching.
Gabriel I Uwaifo, MD Associate Professor, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Louisiana State University School of Medicine in New Orleans; Adjunct Professor, Joint Program on Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Pennington Biomedical Research Center in Baton Rouge
Gabriel I Uwaifo, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, American Diabetes Association, American Medical Association, American Society of Hypertension, Endocrine Society
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Elif A Oral, MD Associate Professor of Medicine, Medical Director, UMHS Bariatric Surgery Program, Director, Post Bariatric Clinic, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes (MEND), University of Michigan Medical School
Elif A Oral, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, American College of Endocrinology, American Diabetes Association, American Medical Association, Endocrine Society
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference
Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.
Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP (Retired) Professor, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Eastern Virginia Medical School
Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Physicians, American Diabetes Association, Endocrine Society
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP Former Professor, Department of Medicine, Former Chief, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Molecular Medicine, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine
Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Physicians, American Diabetes Association, and Endocrine Society
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference
Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment
What would you like to print?
-
Sections Obesity
- Overview
- Presentation
- DDx
- Workup
- Treatment
- Approach Considerations
- Patient Screening, Assessment, and Expectations
- Weight-Loss Goals
- Weight-Loss Maintenance
- Treatment of Childhood Obesity
- Energy Expenditure and Weight Loss
- Conventional Diets
- Water Drinking
- Exercise Programs
- Behavioral Changes
- Antiobesity Medications
- Fat Substitutes
- Bariatric Surgery
- Inpatient Care
- Deterrence and Prevention
- Consultations
- Long-Term Monitoring
- Show All
- Guidelines
- Medication
- Questions & Answers
- Media Gallery
- References
