Obesity Questions & Answers

1. Roundtable on Obesity Solutions, Food and Nutrition Board, Health and Medicine Division, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Obesity in the Early Childhood Years: State of the Science and Implementation of Promising Solutions: Workshop Summary. 2016 May 23. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK368372/.

2. Stierman B, Afful J, Carroll MD, et al. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2017–March 2020 Prepandemic Data Files Development of Files and Prevalence Estimates for Selected Health Outcomes. National Health Statistics Reports. 2021 Jun 14. [Full Text].

3. Wijga AH, Scholtens S, Bemelmans WJ, de Jongste JC, Kerkhof M, Schipper M, et al. Comorbidities of obesity in school children: a cross-sectional study in the PIAMA birth cohort. BMC Public Health. 2010 Apr 9. 10:184. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

4. Li C, Ford ES, Zhao G, Croft JB, Balluz LS, Mokdad AH. Prevalence of self-reported clinically diagnosed sleep apnea according to obesity status in men and women: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005-2006. Prev Med. 2010 Jul. 51(1):18-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

5. Katyal N, Bollu PC. Ventilation, Obesity-Hypoventilation Syndrome. 2018 Jan. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

6. Jiao L, Berrington de Gonzalez A, Hartge P, Pfeiffer RM, Park Y, Freedman DM, et al. Body mass index, effect modifiers, and risk of pancreatic cancer: a pooled study of seven prospective cohorts. Cancer Causes Control. 2010 Aug. 21(8):1305-14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

7. Kyrgiou M, Kalliala I, Markozannes G, et al. Adiposity and cancer at major anatomical sites: umbrella review of the literature. BMJ. 2017 Feb 28. 356:j477. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

8. Mulcahy N. 'Strong evidence': obesity tied to 11 cancers. Medscape Medical News. 2017 Feb 28. [Full Text].

9. Oreopoulos A, Padwal R, McAlister FA, Ezekowitz J, Sharma AM, Kalantar-Zadeh K, et al. Association between obesity and health-related quality of life in patients with coronary artery disease. Int J Obes (Lond). 2010 Sep. 34(9):1434-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. Galtier-Dereure F, Boegner C, Bringer J. Obesity and pregnancy: complications and cost. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000 May. 71(5 Suppl):1242S-8S. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

11. Wadden TA, Webb VL, Moran CH, Bailer BA. Lifestyle modification for obesity: new developments in diet, physical activity, and behavior therapy. Circulation. 2012 Mar 6. 125(9):1157-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

12. Cawley J, Meyerhoefer C. The medical care costs of obesity: an instrumental variables approach. J Health Econ. 2012 Jan. 31(1):219-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

13. Finkelstein EA, DiBonaventura Md, Burgess SM, Hale BC. The costs of obesity in the workplace. J Occup Environ Med. 2010 Oct. 52(10):971-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

14. Weight Loss Markets for Products and Services. BCC Research. Available at http://www.bccresearch.com/report/weight-loss-markets-products-services-fod027c.html. Accessed: April 23, 2012.

15. McCall B. Adiposity-Based Chronic Disease: A New Name for Obesity?. Medscape Medical News. 2016 Dec 29. [Full Text].

16. Gallagher D, Heymsfield SB, Heo M, Jebb SA, Murgatroyd PR, Sakamoto Y. Healthy percentage body fat ranges: an approach for developing guidelines based on body mass index. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000 Sep. 72(3):694-701. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

17. Ward LC. Segmental bioelectrical impedance analysis: an update. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2012 Sep. 15(5):424-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Shiwaku K, Anuurad E, Enkhmaa B, Kitajima K, Yamane Y. Appropriate BMI for Asian populations. Lancet. 2004 Mar 27. 363(9414):1077. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Grundy SM, Brewer HB Jr, Cleeman JI, Smith SC Jr, Lenfant C. Definition of metabolic syndrome: Report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/American Heart Association conference on scientific issues related to definition. Circulation. 2004 Jan 27. 109(3):433-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

20. Tan CE, Ma S, Wai D, Chew SK, Tai ES. Can we apply the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel definition of the metabolic syndrome to Asians?. Diabetes Care. 2004 May. 27(5):1182-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

21. Tirosh A, Shai I, Afek A, Dubnov-Raz G, Ayalon N, Gordon B, et al. Adolescent BMI trajectory and risk of diabetes versus coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2011 Apr 7. 364(14):1315-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Montonen J, Boeing H, Schleicher E, Fritsche A, Pischon T. Association of changes in body mass index during earlier adulthood and later adulthood with circulating obesity biomarker concentrations in middle-aged men and women. Diabetologia. 2011 Jul. 54(7):1676-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. Sugerman HJ, Kellum JM, Engle KM, Wolfe L, Starkey JV, Birkenhauer R, et al. Gastric bypass for treating severe obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992 Feb. 55(2 Suppl):560S-566S. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

24. Sugerman HJ. Effects of increased intra-abdominal pressure in severe obesity. Surg Clin North Am. 2001 Oct. 81(5):1063-75, vi. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Losina E, Walensky RP, Reichmann WM, Holt HL, Gerlovin H, Solomon DH, et al. Impact of obesity and knee osteoarthritis on morbidity and mortality in older Americans. Ann Intern Med. 2011 Feb 15. 154(4):217-26. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

26. Adelman RD, Restaino IG, Alon US, Blowey DL. Proteinuria and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis in severely obese adolescents. J Pediatr. 2001 Apr. 138(4):481-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

27. Kasiske BL, Napier J. Glomerular sclerosis in patients with massive obesity. Am J Nephrol. 1985. 5(1):45-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Jennette JC, Charles L, Grubb W. Glomerulomegaly and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis associated with obesity and sleep-apnea syndrome. Am J Kidney Dis. 1987 Dec. 10(6):470-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. Hairston KG, Bryer-Ash M, Norris JM, Haffner S, Bowden DW, Wagenknecht LE. Sleep duration and five-year abdominal fat accumulation in a minority cohort: the IRAS family study. Sleep. 2010 Mar. 33(3):289-95. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

30. Spiegel K, Tasali E, Penev P, Van Cauter E. Brief communication: Sleep curtailment in healthy young men is associated with decreased leptin levels, elevated ghrelin levels, and increased hunger and appetite. Ann Intern Med. 2004 Dec 7. 141(11):846-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): People of Any Age with Underlying Medical Conditions. CDC. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/people-with-medical-conditions.html. Updated June 25, 2020; Accessed: June 27, 2020.

32. World Obesity Federation. COVID-19 and Obesity: The 2021 Atlas. Available at https://www.worldobesityday.org/assets/downloads/COVID-19-and-Obesity-The-2021-Atlas.pdf. March 2021; Accessed: March 8, 2021.

33. Mascarenhas L, Rahim Z. Covid-19 death rates 10 times higher in countries where most adults are overweight, report finds. CNN Health. Available at https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/04/health/obesity-covid-death-rate-intl/index.html. March 5, 2021; Accessed: March 8, 2021.

34. Garg S, Kim L, Whitaker M, et al. Hospitalization Rates and Characteristics of Patients Hospitalized with Laboratory-Confirmed Coronavirus Disease 2019 — COVID-NET, 14 States, March 1–30, 2020. MMWR. 2020 Apr 8. [Full Text].

35. Lighter J, Phillips M, Hochman S, et al. Obesity in patients younger than 60 years is a risk factor for Covid-19 hospital admission. Clin Infect Dis. 2020 Apr 9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

36. Daveport L, Nainggolan L. Obesity Link to Severe COVID-19, Especially in the Under 60s. Medscape Medical News. 2020 Apr 16. [Full Text].

37. Kass DA, Duggal P, Cingolani O. Obesity could shift severe COVID-19 disease to younger ages. Lancet. 2020 May 4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

38. Salamon M. Obesity Can Shift Severe COVID-19 to Younger Age Groups. Medscape Medical News. 2020 May 11. [Full Text].

39. Cai Q, Chen F, Wang T, et al. Obesity and COVID-19 Severity in a Designated Hospital in Shenzhen, China. Diabetes Care. 2020 May 14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

40. Gao F, Zheng KI, Wang XB, et al. Obesity Is a Risk Factor for Greater COVID-19 Severity. Diabetes Care. 2020 May 14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

41. Tucker ME. 'The Story Unfolding Is Worrisome' for Diabetes and COVID-19. Medscape Medical News. 2020 May 26. [Full Text].

42. Foulkes AS, Selvaggi C, Shinnick D, et al. Understanding the Link Between Obesity and Severe COVID-19 Outcomes: Causal Mediation by Systemic Inflammatory Response. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022 Jan 18. 107 (2):e698-e707. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

43. Kompaniyets L, Goodman AB, Brook B, et al. Body Mass Index and Risk for COVID-19–Related Hospitalization, Intensive Care Unit Admission, Invasive Mechanical Ventilation, and Death — United States, March–December 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021 8 Mar. [Full Text].

44. McNamara D. CDC Data Strengthens Link Between Obesity and Severe COVID. Medscape Medical News. 2021 Mar 8. [Full Text].

45. Gao M, Piernas C, Astbury NM, et al. Associations between body-mass index and COVID-19 severity in 6·9 million people in England: a prospective, community-based, cohort study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2021 Apr 28. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

46. Melville NA. COVID-19 Severity Starts in Normal BMI Range, Especially in Young. Medscape Medical News. 2021 May 5. [Full Text].

47. Szatmary P, Arora A, Raraty MGT, Dunne DFJ, Baron RD, Halloran CM. Emerging phenotype of SARS-CoV2 associated pancreatitis. Gastroenterology. 2020 Jun 1. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

48. Pass W. COVID-associated pancreatitis may disproportionately affect young, overweight men. MDedge Family Medicine. 2020 Jun 24. [Full Text].

49. McCall B. Obesity Is Deadlier in Men With COVID-19 Than in Women. Medscape Medical News. 2021 May 6. [Full Text].

50. Guerson-Gil A, Palaiodimos L, Assa A, et al. Sex-specific impact of severe obesity in the outcomes of hospitalized patients with COVID-19: a large retrospective study from the Bronx, New York. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2021 May 6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

51. Busko M. Obesity Biggest Risk for COVID-19 Pneumonia, After Age, Male Sex. Medscape Medical News. 2020 Nov 5. [Full Text].

52. Aminian A, Bena J, Pantalone KM, Burguera B. Association of obesity with postacute sequelae of COVID-19. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2021 Sep. 23 (9):2183-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

53. Melville NA. Obesity Increases Risk for Long-COVID, Study Finds. WebMD Health News. 2021 Jun 8. [Full Text].

54. Yao R, Ananth CV, Park BY, Pereira L, Plante LA, for the Perinatal Research Consortium. Obesity and the risk of stillbirth: a population-based cohort study [abstract]. Presented at: The 2014 SMFM Annual Meeting; February 3-8, 2014; New Orleans, LA. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2014. 210:[Full Text].

55. Hackethal V. Obese women may have 25% increased risk for stillbirth. Medscape Medical News. March 27, 2014. [Full Text].

56. Cameron NA, Petito LC, McCabe M, et al. Quantifying the Sex-Race/Ethnicity-Specific Burden of Obesity on Incident Diabetes Mellitus in the United States, 2001 to 2016: MESA and NHANES. J Am Heart Assoc. 2021 Feb 16. 10 (4):e018799. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

57. Zoler ML. Obesity Pegged as Diabetes Cause in Almost Half of US Cases. Medscape Medical News. 2021 Feb 18. [Full Text].

58. Abdullah A, Amin FA, Hanum F, et al. Estimating the risk of type-2 diabetes using obese-years in a contemporary population of the Framingham Study. Glob Health Action. 2016. 9:30421. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

59. McCall B. New Genes Hold Clue to Why Many With Obesity Don't Get Diabetes. Medscape Medical News. 2018 Mar 19. [Full Text].

60. Evangelista LS, Cho WK, Kim Y. Obesity and chronic kidney disease: a population-based study among South Koreans. PLoS One. 2018. 13 (2):e0193559. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

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62. Hamdy O. The role of adipose tissue as an endocrine gland. Curr Diab Rep. 2005 Oct. 5(5):317-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

63. Bays H, Blonde L, Rosenson R. Adiposopathy: how do diet, exercise and weight loss drug therapies improve metabolic disease in overweight patients?. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2006 Nov. 4(6):871-95. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

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70. Tester JM, Phan TT, Tucker JM, et al. Characteristics of Children 2 to 5 Years of Age With Severe Obesity. Pediatrics. 2018 Feb 27. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

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72. Freeman E, Fletcher R, Collins CE, et al. Preventing and treating childhood obesity: time to target fathers. Int J Obes (Lond). 2012 Jan. 36(1):12-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

73. Chambers JC, Elliott P, Zabaneh D, Zhang W, Li Y, Froguel P, et al. Common genetic variation near MC4R is associated with waist circumference and insulin resistance. Nat Genet. 2008 Jun. 40(6):716-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

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75. Loos RJ, Lindgren CM, Li S, Wheeler E, Zhao JH, Prokopenko I, et al. Common variants near MC4R are associated with fat mass, weight and risk of obesity. Nat Genet. 2008 Jun. 40(6):768-75. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

76. Scuteri A, Sanna S, Chen WM, Uda M, Albai G, Strait J, et al. Genome-wide association scan shows genetic variants in the FTO gene are associated with obesity-related traits. PLoS Genet. 2007 Jul. 3(7):e115. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

77. Day FR, Loos RJ. Developments in obesity genetics in the era of genome-wide association studies. J Nutrigenet Nutrigenomics. 2011. 4(4):222-38. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

78. Reinehr T, Kleber M, de Sousa G, et al. Leptin concentrations are a predictor of overweight reduction in a lifestyle intervention. Int J Pediatr Obes. May 13 2009;1-9:[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

79. Cummings DE, Schwartz MW. Melanocortins and body weight: a tale of two receptors. Nat Genet. 2000 Sep. 26(1):8-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

80. Vaisse C, Clement K, Durand E, Hercberg S, Guy-Grand B, Froguel P. Melanocortin-4 receptor mutations are a frequent and heterogeneous cause of morbid obesity. J Clin Invest. 2000 Jul. 106(2):253-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

81. Wardlaw SL. Clinical review 127: Obesity as a neuroendocrine disease: lessons to be learned from proopiomelanocortin and melanocortin receptor mutations in mice and men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001 Apr. 86(4):1442-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

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83. Abbasi A, Corpeleijn E, Postmus D, Gansevoort RT, de Jong PE, Gans RO, et al. Plasma procalcitonin is associated with obesity, insulin resistance, and the metabolic syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010 Sep. 95(9):E26-31. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

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85. Frellick M. US Adult Obesity Rate Jumped Over Last 20 Years. Medscape Medical News. 2018 Mar 15. [Full Text].

86. Laidman J. Obesity's Toll: 1 in 5 Deaths Linked to Excess Weight. Medscape Medical News. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/809516. Accessed: August 21, 2013.

87. Masters RK, Reither EN, Powers DA, Yang YC, Burger AE, Link BG. The Impact of Obesity on US Mortality Levels: The Importance of Age and Cohort Factors in Population Estimates. Am J Public Health. 2013 Aug 15.

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90. Molarius A, Seidell JC, Sans S, Tuomilehto J, Kuulasmaa K. Waist and hip circumferences, and waist-hip ratio in 19 populations of the WHO MONICA Project. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999 Feb. 23(2):116-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

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93. Reuters Staff. More Than Half of the World Will Be Overweight or Obese by 2035: Report. Reuters Health Information. 2023 Mar 3. [Full Text].

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96. Metcalf BS, Hosking J, Frémeaux AE, Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. BMI was right all along: taller children really are fatter (implications of making childhood BMI independent of height) EarlyBird 48. Int J Obes (Lond). 2011 Apr. 35(4):541-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

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116. Tucker ME. New US obesity guidelines. Treat the weight first. Medscape Medical News. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/838285.

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120. Wing RR, Lang W, Wadden TA, Safford M, Knowler WC, Bertoni AG, et al. Benefits of modest weight loss in improving cardiovascular risk factors in overweight and obese individuals with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2011 Jul. 34(7):1481-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

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124. Sumithran P, Prendergast LA, Delbridge E, et al. Long-term persistence of hormonal adaptations to weight loss. N Engl J Med. 2011 Oct 27. 365(17):1597-604. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

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127. Proimos J, Sawyer S. Obesity in childhood and adolescence. Aust Fam Physician. 2000 Apr. 29(4):321-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

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Osama Hamdy, MD, PhD Medical Director, Obesity Clinical Program, Director of Inpatient Diabetes Program, Joslin Diabetes Center; Associate Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School

Osama Hamdy, MD, PhD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American Diabetes Association

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: on advisory panel of Astra-Zeneca Inc<br/>Received research grant from: USDA Dairy Council <br/>Have a 5% or greater equity interest in: HealthyMation Inc<br/>Received consulting fee from Merck Inc for teaching; Received consulting fee from Abbott Nutrition for consulting; for: Receieved consulting fee Sanofi Aventis for teaching.

Gabriel I Uwaifo, MD Associate Professor, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Louisiana State University School of Medicine in New Orleans; Adjunct Professor, Joint Program on Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Pennington Biomedical Research Center in Baton Rouge

Gabriel I Uwaifo, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, American Diabetes Association, American Medical Association, American Society of Hypertension, Endocrine Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Elif A Oral, MD Associate Professor of Medicine, Medical Director, UMHS Bariatric Surgery Program, Director, Post Bariatric Clinic, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes (MEND), University of Michigan Medical School

Elif A Oral, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, American College of Endocrinology, American Diabetes Association, American Medical Association, Endocrine Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP (Retired) Professor, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Eastern Virginia Medical School

Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Physicians, American Diabetes Association, Endocrine Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP Former Professor, Department of Medicine, Former Chief, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Molecular Medicine, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine

Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Physicians, American Diabetes Association, and Endocrine Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

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