Thumb Reconstruction

Updated: Jan 25, 2023

Author: Reuben A Bueno, Jr, MD; Chief Editor: Vinod K Panchbhavi, MD, FACS, FAOA, FABOS, FAAOS

Overview

Background

The thumb plays an important role in hand function. Daily tasks involving pinch, grip, grasp, and precision handling are more easily accomplished with an opposable thumb. Traumatic loss, congenital absence, or hypoplasia diminishes or eliminates the thumb's prehensile abilities and may affect overall hand function.

Images relevant to thumb reconstruction are provided below:

Diagram of a Moberg volar advancement flap being used for a thumb tip defect.

Diagram of a Littler neurovascular island flap for the coverage of a thumb tip defect.

Markings for the pedicle of a first dorsal metacarpal artery flap.

Markings for a free tissue transfer of great toe pulp to restore a volar thumb defect.

Volar view of the clinical appearance of a Blauth type IV pouce flottant thumb.

Horta et al retrospectively reviewed 107 cases of thumb reconstruction in emergency situations using Moberg, radial innervated cross-finger, Venkataswami-Subramanian, Foucher, Tezcan, and Littler flaps. The Foucher flap was used the most often, in 56 cases, and the Tezcan flap proved to be a good alternative.[1]

According to Ray et al, when replantation of an avulsed/amputated thumb is not feasible, toe-to-hand transfer may be considered at initial presentation as an immediate one-stage transfer in appropriately chosen patients. In a retrospective study of 6 patients, great-toe transfer was safely and reliably performed and reduced hospitalization and operative and recovery time. In addition, according to the authors, it may speed up the return of function and return to work.[2]

History of the Procedure

Attempts to restore thumb function were recorded as early as 1874, when Huguier reported on the "phalangization" of the thumb metacarpal, which was carried out by deepening the first web space.[3] In 1900, Nicoladoni described a reconstruction procedure following traumatic amputation of the thumb in which a staged, pedicled transfer of the great toe was performed.[4] Development of microsurgical techniques allowed successful transfer of a toe to a thumb in monkeys in 1965 and in a human in 1966.[5, 6]

Reports of technical refinements in the toe-to-thumb transfer subsequently appeared in the literature.[7, 8] Congenital absence of the thumb from thalidomide exposure provided experience with index finger pollicization for thumb reconstruction.[9]

Problem

Congenital absence or traumatic injury to the thumb, resulting in a loss of its prehensile ability, significantly affects hand function.

Etiology

Traumatic loss, congenital absence, or hypoplasia of the thumb may result in a need for thumb replantation.

Indications

Restoration of the 5 components of thumb function described by Littler — stability, strength, mobility, sensibility, and posture — should serve as the basis for any reconstructive plan.[10] Consideration of these components and how they relate to each other allows a functional approach to the thumb deficit that guides the reconstructive hand surgeon. The goals of thumb reconstruction, as outlined by Heitmann and Levin, consist of the following[11] :

Sensate and nontender thumb tip
Stability at the interphalangeal (IP) and metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joints
Adequate strength to resist the forces of the fingers
Correct posture and positioning of the thumb with a wide webspace
Mobility of the carpometacarpal (CMC) joint with intrinsic muscles to aid prehension

Whether an indication for surgery is related to injury or congenital malformation of the thumb, the ultimate goal is optimal function of the hand. Pinch, fine manipulation, and power grip depend to some extent on stable, sensate skin in the pulp and a functional IP joint. The power grip is enhanced by the strength and mobility of the thumb, which in turn are largely defined by the integrity of the intrinsic and extrinsic musculature, as well as by the functionality of the CMC joint.[12, 13]

Selecting the most appropriate technique for thumb reconstruction depends on multiple factors, including the following:

Level of injury
Status of the remaining hand
Presence or absence of the thenar musculature
Age, occupation, overall health, and functional demands of the patient

In addition, the indication for surgery varies not only with the patient's needs and desires, but also with age, gender, and general health. The level of injury is among the most important factors to consider in deciding on the most appropriate reconstructive strategy. Kleinman and Strickland described a useful classification system, dividing the thumb into thirds: the distal phalanx, the proximal phalanx, and the metacarpal segment.[14]

The successful replantation of an amputated thumb restores the appearance of and some function to the injured hand. The procedure yields high satisfaction rates, whereas the functional outcome of other reconstructive methods tends to be less rewarding.

Relevant Anatomy

The thumb's arterial supply is provided mainly through the terminal branch of the radial artery, the princeps pollicis. This artery crosses the first intermetacarpal space to run on the volar aspect of the MCP joint, where it divides into the ulnar and radial collateral arteries. The ulnar collateral artery is usually larger than the radial collateral artery, and it is often easier to repair during replantation. The median nerve and the superficial radial nerve supply sensation to the palmar skin and to the dorsal side of the thumb, respectively.

The abductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis brevis, and extensor pollicis longus extend the thumb. They insert at the base of the thumb metacarpal, proximal phalanx, and distal phalanx, respectively.

For more information about the relevant anatomy, see Hand Anatomy.

Workup

Imaging Studies

In cases of traumatic injury to the thumb, radiographs should be obtained to determine the presence of fracture and to assess the quality of the IP, MCP, and CMC joints.

In evaluating a child with a congenital malformation of the thumb, radiographs should be obtained to determine the presence or absence of the bones of the thumb, the position of the bones, the quality of the joints, and the presence of any other bony abnormalities.

Treatment

Surgical Therapy

The goal of thumb reconstruction is to restore function, as well as to provide the hand with an acceptable appearance and to keep donor-site morbidity to an acceptable level. The level of amputation determines the reconstruction plan. The predicted outcome of surgery generally favors reconstruction when an amputation has occurred distal to the MCP joint and has therefore left the first web space, as well as the thenar muscles (including their insertions), preserved.

Preoperative Details

Thorough discussion with the patient and the patient's family is necessary prior to surgery to set realistic expectations for the restoration of thumb function. Despite a successful reconstruction, the thumb may never return to a pre-injury level of function. The patient and surgeon should be aware of this possibility. Similarly, in the child born with a hypoplastic or absent thumb, the reconstructed thumb will never be the same as the contralateral, nonaffected thumb. Parents must recognize this fact when thumb reconstruction is performed.

Intraoperative Details

Distal-third amputations

Although technically challenging because of the size of vessels that are distal to the IP joint, successful replantation of the thumb tip restores length, glabrous skin, and the nail. These components, combined with the return of sensibility, maximize thumb dexterity and function.[15] In cases in which replantation is unsuccessful or is not desirable, healing by secondary intention, skin grafting, revision amputation, or local flaps are options for wound coverage.[16, 1] Partial or complete thumb amputation distal to the IP joint has been described as "compensated amputation" because functional impairment may be minimal.[17, 18]

Local flap options include the following:

Moberg flap - The Moberg flap, as shown in the images below, allows advancement of volar skin of up to 1.5 cm in order to provide stable, sensate skin. The flap is raised at the level of the flexor tendon sheath in a distal-to-proximal relation to the MCP flexion crease and includes the 2 volar neurovascular pedicles.[19] Use of this flap may lead to stiffness or flexion contracture at the IP joint.

Marking for the radial incision of a Moberg flap.

Moberg flap raised just above the level of the flexor pollicis longus tendon sheath.

Radial view of the markings for a volar advancement flap with modification of the incision at the base to allow closure in V-Y fashion after distal phalanx shortening.

Volar advancement flap with modification of the incision at the base to allow closure in V-Y fashion after distal phalanx shortening.

Bridging vessel to the neurovascular bundle on a volar flap.

Flexion at the interphalangeal joint to allow closure.

Radial view of the closure of a thumb defect with a Moberg volar advancement flap.
Littler neurovascular island flap - Popularized by Littler, this flap, as shown in the images below, supplies sensate, glabrous skin from the ulnar side of the long or ring finger to the volar aspect of the thumb.[20] Problems with cortical reintegration and cold intolerance have been reported and have led to the decreased use of this flap for thumb reconstruction. A study by Wang et al reported success with a modified Littler flap, devised to reduce complications associated with the flap’s more common design. In the modified version, the dorsal branch of the proper digital nerve innervated the flap, as did the proper digital nerve from the middle finger’s ulnar aspect or the ring finger’s radial aspect. (A nerve graft from the proximal section of the ispsilateral dorsal branch of the proper digital nerve was used to repair the proper digital nerve at the donor site.) Postsurgical results showed nearly normal scores for the thumb and donor finger with regard to the static two-point discrimination test and the Semmes-Weinstein monofilament test, with total active motions also being close to normal.[21]

Intraoperative view of a Littler neurovascular island flap.

Postoperative view of a Littler neurovascular island flap.
First dorsal metacarpal artery flap - Also known as the kite flap, this is another reconstructive option that can bring sensate skin to the injured thumb.[22, 23] The flap, as shown in the images below, which uses the first dorsal metacarpal artery for its blood supply, employs skin from the dorsal-radial aspect of the index finger. Pedicle length may limit this flap's use for distal thumb defects. As with the Littler neurovascular island flap, cortical reintegration may be an issue with the first dorsal metacarpal artery flap.

Dissection for a first dorsal metacarpal artery flap.

Isolation of the pedicle for a first dorsal metacarpal artery flap.

Postoperative appearance of a thumb tip after coverage with a first dorsal metacarpal artery flap.
A microvascular toe transfer, or wraparound flap, is the most sophisticated reconstructive option for amputation injuries to the thumb, as shown in the images below. Since the technique allows restoration of a near-normal pulp and nail, it also provides the best functional results.[7]
A study by Gu et al indicated that the use of free toe flaps is a reliable means of reconstructing finger and thumb soft tissue defects. In the study, six thumbs and 15 fingers were reconstructed in adult patients, with flaps taken from the lateral aspect of the great toe (9 patients) or the medial aspect of the second toe (12 patients); the average follow-up period was 18.4 months. The investigators reported that all of the flaps survived, with none of the patients requiring urgent surgical revision for postoperative thrombosis. Patients scored an average of 4.8 mm on the static two-point discrimination test.[24]

Free tissue transfer of great toe pulp to restore a volar thumb defect.

Markings for a free tissue transfer of great toe pulp to restore a volar thumb defect.

Postoperative view after a free tissue transfer of great toe pulp to restore a volar defect.

Middle-third amputations

When the level of injury is distal to the MCP joint and proximal to the IP joint, length preservation becomes more of an issue because of the effect that a shorter thumb has on pinch and grip strength. Prior to the era of microsurgery, treatment options included phalangization (ie, deepening of the first web space) and osteoplastic reconstruction.[3, 25]

Additional length for the thumb stump can be obtained using the following methods:

Placement of a distraction device on the thumb metacarpal after osteotomy, with gradual lengthening[17]
Four-flap Z-plasty to deepen the first web space[26]
Release of the first interosseous muscle and proximal transfer of the insertion of the adductor pollicis[27, 28]

Osteoplastic thumb reconstruction offers a staged approach involving the placement of an iliac crest bone graft within a tubed pedicle flap from the groin or epigastric area and subsequent flap division to provide a stable, reconstructed thumb with some gain in length.[25] A neurovascular island flap may be necessary to bring sensate tissue to the reconstructed thumb at the time of flap division.[29] However, nonmicrovascular techniques have not been widely used because they can result in an unsatisfactory appearance, a lack of sensation, difficulty with cortical reintegration, and bone graft resorption.[30]

Microsurgical techniques for toe-to-hand transfer have revolutionized the treatment of thumb amputations at the middle or third level by restoring stability, mobility, strength, and sensation, as well as by providing good appearance. By allowing the transfer of functioning units that are analogous to the lost structures, microvascular reconstruction generally provides results that are functionally and aesthetically superior to those of other techniques. The first dorsal metatarsal artery in the foot allows transfer of the great toe or second toe on a longer vascular pedicle than does a transfer based on a digital artery. The reconstructive surgeon should be aware of variations in the arterial supply to these toes.[31]

The wraparound flap, introduced by Morrison, offers the advantage of generally better aesthetics than does a classic toe-to-hand transfer.[7] In the wraparound flap, a filleted flap of skin, digital nerves and vessels, and a nail is wrapped around a degloved distal phalanx or an iliac crest bone graft. This technique allows better size match to a normal thumb, although motion at the IP joint is not restored. The trimmed toe flap is a modification of the wraparound flap; described by Wei and colleagues, the trimmed toe flap preserves some IP joint motion by combining a longitudinal osteotomy of the phalanges with a reconstruction of the lateral collateral ligament.[32]

A study by Troisi et al indicated that in thumb or finger reconstruction, the trimmed great toe flap maintains digit length and provides good aesthetic results, with donor site morbidity being comparatively low. In the report, seven thumbs and three fingers were reconstructed using the trimmed flap, with the only complications being two minor ones. Following wound healing, patients had a median overall Michigan Hand Outcomes Questionnaire (MHOQ) score of 95.44. The single case of donor site morbidity consisted of a spontaneously resolving foot hematoma.[33]

Proximal-third amputations

Reconstruction becomes more difficult, but also more important, when a thumb amputation has occurred proximal to the MCP joint.[34] A study by Kovachevich et al found good results with immediate great toe–to-thumb transfers in patients who had undergone amputation of the thumb through the base of the proximal phalanx, the result of locally aggressive benign or malignant tumors. Among the three patients in the study, all of the transferred toes survived, with each patient attaining full thumb opposition and protective sensation.[35]

Reconstructive options to restore thumb function also include the transfer of the second toe to the thumb or pollicization of the index finger. A second-toe transfer can restore more length than a great toe transfer can by including the MCP joint and a segment of the second metatarsal.[36] A second-toe transfer is also indicated when a significant size discrepancy exists between the great toe and the thumb or when a patient does not want to lose the great toe for aesthetic, cultural, or functional reasons.[37] In patients with traumatic amputation of the thumb, other digits in the hand, such as the index or long finger, also may be injured or amputated. These "spare parts" may then be transferred to the thumb stump for reconstruction.[38]

With a more proximal amputation, one resulting in the loss of intrinsic muscles and the destruction of the CMC joint, pollicization of another finger to restore thumb function and opposition may be the only option to offer.[25] The index finger is the most commonly pollicized digit, although the long and ring fingers have been used.[39, 40, 41] The transposed finger provides length, sensation, proper positioning, and motion for grasp and pinch functions, with acceptable donor-site deficits (although retraining may be difficult in an adult patient).[42, 43]

Congenital absence

The deficit from a proximal-third amputation most closely resembles that of a congenitally absent thumb (a Blauth type V thumb). However, the distinction between a normal thumb that has been amputated and congenital aplasia or hypoplasia of the thumb must be recognized. Normal structures were present in the amputated thumb prior to injury, whereas in thumb aplasia or hypoplasia, bone, tendons, nerves, and vessels may be poorly developed or completely absent, as shown in the images below.

Dorsal view of the clinical appearance of a Blauth type IV pouce flottant thumb.

Volar view of the clinical appearance of a Blauth type IV pouce flottant thumb.

Radiograph of a pouce flottant thumb

For these reasons, pollicization of the index finger is recommended for reconstruction of the congenitally absent thumb, as shown in the images below.[9]

Pollicized index finger for thumb reconstruction at 2 weeks after surgery.

Functional use of a pollicized index finger at 8 weeks after surgery.

The principles of pollicization are as follows:

Well-designed skin incisions to reduce scar contracture in the first web space
Careful dissection of the neurovascular bundles to the index finger
Shortening of the index metacarpal to achieve the desired thumb length
Proper positioning of the thumb with hyperextension of the proximal phalanx on the metacarpal head
Anchoring of the pollicized digit to the distal carpus
Tendon reconstruction, including transfer of the first palmar and dorsal interosseous muscles to the lateral bands of the index finger to provide abduction and adduction, respectively[9]
Final stabilization and positioning with appropriate tension of transferred tendons

Complications

Sequelae to finger trauma may include edema, hypertrophic scarring, nail deformity, cold intolerance, abnormal sensitivity, joint stiffness, and generally decreased function. Complications that are directly related to reconstructive surgery include postoperative bleeding, infection, anesthesia-related problems, complex regional pain syndrome, and the loss of a skin flap, a replanted or transferred part, or a pollicized digit.

Outcome and Prognosis

As reported by Buncke and others, toe-to-hand transfer for thumb reconstruction can provide excellent end results and a high degree of patient satisfaction.[2, 44, 45, 46] The survival rate of these transfers has been reported to be as high as 98%, with 2-point discrimination of 8 mm or less in 80% of cases and, following reconstruction of the dominant thumb, a grip strength that is equal to 80% of the noninjured hand's grip strength.

In addition, most patients who have undergone toe-to-thumb transfer return to work and resume previous leisure activities, leading to a high degree of patient satisfaction. These findings are supported by Chung and Wei, who found better hand function in patients with toe-to-thumb transfer than they did in patients with a thumb amputation.[47]

In his review of index finger pollicizations employed to treat the congenital absence of a thumb, Manske found that patients had an average active range of motion of 98º in the pollicized digit (half the range of a normal thumb). He also determined that the average grip strength among these patients was 21% of normal grip strength and that their pinch strength ranged between 22% and 26% of normal pinch strength. Although these values are significantly lower than normal, they still indicate that index finger pollicization provides functional and aesthetic improvements over an absent thumb.[48, 49]

Author

Reuben A Bueno, Jr, MD Assistant Professor, Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Surgery, Coordinator of Pediatric Plastic Surgery, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine; Consulting Staff, SIU Physicians and Surgeons, Inc

Reuben A Bueno, Jr, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for Hand Surgery, American Society for Surgery of the Hand, American Society of Plastic Surgeons

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Bradon J Wilhelmi, MD Leonard J Weiner, MD, Professor and Chief of Plastic Surgery, Plastic Surgery Residency Program Director, Hiram J Polk, Jr, MD, Department of Surgery, University of Louisville School of Medicine

Bradon J Wilhelmi, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Association for Hand Surgery, American Association of Clinical Anatomists, American Burn Association, American College of Surgeons, American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, American Society for Reconstructive Microsurgery, American Society for Surgery of the Hand, American Society of Plastic Surgeons, Association for Surgical Education, Plastic Surgery Research Council, Wound Healing Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

N Ake Nystrom, MD, PhD Associate Professor of Orthopedic Surgery and Plastic Surgery, University of Nebraska Medical Center

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Vinod K Panchbhavi, MD, FACS, FAOA, FABOS, FAAOS Professor, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Chief, Division of Foot and Ankle Surgery, Director, Foot and Ankle Fellowship Program, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Texas Medical Branch School of Medicine

Vinod K Panchbhavi, MD, FACS, FAOA, FABOS, FAAOS is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, American College of Surgeons, American Orthopaedic Association, American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society, Orthopaedic Trauma Association, Texas Orthopaedic Association

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a speaker or a member of a speakers bureau for: Styker.

Additional Contributors

Joseph E Sheppard, MD Professor of Clinical Orthopedic Surgery, Chief of Hand and Upper Extremity Service, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Arizona Health Sciences Center, University Physicians Healthcare

Joseph E Sheppard, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, Orthopaedics Overseas, American Society for Surgery of the Hand

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Horta R, Barbosa R, Oliveira I, Amarante JM, Marques M, Cruz Reis J, et al. Neurosensible reconstruction of the thumb in an emergency situation: review of 107 cases. Tech Hand Up Extrem Surg. 2009 Jun. 13(2):85-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ray EC, Sherman R, Stevanovic M. Immediate reconstruction of a nonreplantable thumb amputation by great toe transfer. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009 Jan. 123(1):259-67. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Huguier PC. Du remplacement du pouce par son metacarpien, par l'agrandissement du premier espace interosseux. Arch Gen Med. 1874. 1:78.
Nicoladoni C. Daumenplastik und organischer Ersatz der Fingerspitze (Anticheiroplastik und Daktyloplstik). Arch Klin Chir. 1900. 61:606-14.
Buncke HJ Jr, Buncke CM, Schulz WP. Immediate Nicoladoni procedure in the Rhesus monkey, or hallux-to-hand transplantation, utilising microminiature vascular anastomoses. Br J Plast Surg. 1966 Oct. 19(4):332-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cobbett JR. Free digital transfer. Report of a case of transfer of a great toe to replace an amputated thumb. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1969 Nov. 51(4):677-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Morrison WA, O'Brien BM, MacLeod AM. Thumb reconstruction with a free neurovascular wrap-around flap from the big toe. J Hand Surg [Am]. 1980 Nov. 5(6):575-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wei FC, Chen HC, Chuang CC, et al. Microsurgical thumb reconstruction with toe transfer: selection of various techniques. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1994 Feb. 93(2):345-51; discussion 352-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Buck-Gramcko D. Pollicization of the index finger. Method and results in aplasia and hypoplasia of the thumb. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1971 Dec. 53(8):1605-17. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Littler JW. On making a thumb: one hundred years of surgical effort. J Hand Surg [Am]. 1976 Jul. 1(1):35-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Heitmann C, Levin LS. Alternatives to thumb replantation. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2002 Nov. 110(6):1492-503; quiz 1504-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Littler JW. On the adaptability of man's hand (with reference to the equiangular curve). Hand. 1973 Oct. 5(3):187-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Napier JR. The prehensile movements of the human hand. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1956 Nov. 38-B(4):902-13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Kleinman WB, Strickland JW. Thumb reconstruction. Green DP, ed. Operative Hand Surgery. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Churchill Livingstone; 1999. 2068-170.
Morrison WA. Thumb reconstruction: a review and philosophy of management. J Hand Surg [Br]. 1992 Aug. 17(4):383-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cheng G, Fang G, Hou S, et al. Aesthetic reconstruction of thumb or finger partial defect with trimmed toe-flap transfer. Microsurgery. 2007. 27(2):74-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Matev IB. Thumb reconstruction through metacarpal bone lengthening. J Hand Surg [Am]. 1980 Sep. 5(5):482-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Woo SH, Lee GJ, Kim KC, et al. Immediate partial great toe transfer for the reconstruction of composite defects of the distal thumb. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006 May. 117(6):1906-15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Moberg E. Aspects of sensation in reconstructive surgery of the upper extremity. J Bone Joint Surg [Am]. 1964 Jun. 46:817-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Littler JW. Neurovascular pedicle transfer of tissue in reconstructive surgery of the hand. J Bone Joint Surg. 1956. 38A:917.
Wang H, Yang X, Chen C, Wang B, Wang W, Jia S. Modified Littler flap for sensory reconstruction of large thumb pulp defects. J Hand Surg Eur Vol. 2018 Jun. 43 (5):546-53. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Foucher G, Khouri RK. Digital reconstruction with island flaps. Clin Plast Surg. 1997 Jan. 24(1):1-32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Adani R, Mugnai R, Petrella G. Reconstruction of Traumatic Dorsal Loss of the Thumb: Four Different Surgical Approaches. Hand (N Y). 2017 Oct 1. 1558944717736396. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gu JX, Pan JB, Liu HJ, et al. Aesthetic and sensory reconstruction of finger pulp defects using free toe flaps. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2014 Feb. 38(1):156-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lister G. The choice of procedure following thumb amputation. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1985 May. (195):45-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Broadbent TR, Woolf RM. Thumb reconstruction with contiguous skin-bone pedicle graft. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1960. 26:494-49.
Emerson ET, Krizek TJ, Greenwald DP. Anatomy, physiology, and functional restoration of the thumb. Ann Plast Surg. 1996 Feb. 36(2):180-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Goldner RD, Howson MP, Nunley JA, et al. One hundred eleven thumb amputations: replantation vs revision. Microsurgery. 1990. 11(3):243-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Reid DA. Reconstruction of the thumb. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1960 Aug. 42-B:444-65. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Cheema TA, Miller S. One-stage osteoplastic reconstruction of the thumb. Tech Hand Up Extrem Surg. 2009 Sep. 13(3):130-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gilbert A. Composite tissue transfers from the foot: anatomic basis and surgical technique. Daniller AI, Strauch B, eds. Symposium on Microsurgery. St Louis, Mo: CV Mosby; 1976.
Wei FC, Chen HC, Chuang CC, et al. Reconstruction of the thumb with a trimmed-toe transfer technique. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1988 Sep. 82(3):506-15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Troisi L, Mazzocconi L, Mastroiacovo A, et al. Beauty and Function: The Use of Trimmed Great Toe in Thumb and Finger Reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2022 Sep. 10 (9):e4540. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Shin AY, Bishop AT, Berger RA. Microvascular reconstruction of the traumatized thumb. Hand Clin. 1999 May. 15(2):347-71. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kovachevich R, Giuffre JL, Shin AY, Bishop AT. Immediate Great Toe Transfer for Thumb Reconstruction After Tumor Resection: Report of 3 Cases. Ann Plast Surg. 2016 Mar. 76 (3):280-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Leung PC. Thumb reconstruction using second-toe transfer. Hand Clin. 1985 May. 1(2):285-95. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Valauri FA, Buncke HJ. Thumb and finger reconstruction by toe-to-hand transfer. Hand Clin. 1992 Aug. 8(3):551-74. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Weinzweig N, Chen L, Chen ZW. Pollicization of the mutilated hand by transposition of middle and ring finger remnants. Ann Plast Surg. 1995 May. 34(5):523-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Letac R. Pollicization of the ring finger. J Int Coll Surg. 1954 Dec. 22(6, Part 1):649-55. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Littler JW. Reconstruction of the thumb in traumatic loss. Converse JM, ed. Reconstructive Plastic Surgery. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders; 1977.
Reid DA. Thumb reconstruction in the mutilated hand with special reference to pollicization. Campbell Reid DA, Gosset J, eds. Mutilating Injuries of the Hand. New York, NY: Churchill Livingstone; 1979.
Brunelli GA, Brunelli GR. Reconstruction of traumatic absence of the thumb in the adult by pollicization. Hand Clin. 1992 Feb. 8(1):41-55. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Stern PJ, Lister GD. Pollicization after traumatic amputation of the thumb. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1981 Mar-Apr. (155):85-94. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Buncke HM, Valauri FA, Buncke GM. Great toe-to-hand transfer. Meyer VE, Black MJ, eds. Microsurgical Procedures: The Hand and Upper Limb. New York, NY: Churchill Livingstone; 1991.
Cong HB, Chang SM, Qiao YP, et al. One-stage reconstruction of complicated thumb injury with combination of microsurgical transplantations. Microsurgery. 2007. 27(3):181-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Rosson GD, Buncke GM, Buncke HJ. Great toe transplant versus thumb replant for isolated thumb amputation: critical analysis of functional outcome. Microsurgery. 2008. 28(8):598-605. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chung KC, Wei FC. An outcome study of thumb reconstruction using microvascular toe transfer. J Hand Surg [Am]. 2000 Jul. 25(4):651-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Manske PR, Rotman MB, Dailey LA. Long-term functional results after pollicization for the congenitally deficient thumb. J Hand Surg [Am]. 1992 Nov. 17(6):1064-72. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Aliu O, Netscher DT, Staines KG, Thornby J, Armenta A. A 5-year interval evaluation of function after pollicization for congenital thumb aplasia using multiple outcome measures. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008 Jul. 122(1):198-205. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].