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Connective Tissue Disease-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease (CTD-ILD)

Sections Connective Tissue Disease-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease (CTD-ILD)
Overview
Presentation
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Workup
Treatment
Guidelines
Medication
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Medication

Medication Summary

The goals of pharmacotherapy are to reduce morbidity and prevent complications. Drugs used to manage connective tissue disease (CTD) associated with interstitial lung disease (ILD) (CTD-ILD) include nintedanib, corticosteroids, and antineoplastic agents.^[99]

Class Summary

Corticosteroids have anti-inflammatory properties and cause profound and varied metabolic effects. They modify the body’s immune response to diverse stimuli.

Prednisone (Deltasone, Rayos)

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Prednisone is used as an immunosuppressant in the treatment of autoimmune disorders. It has anti-inflammatory properties and produces multiple glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid effects. Prednisone therapy is best prescribed in consultation with a pulmonary disease specialist.

Prednisolone (FloPred, Millipred, Millipred DP, Prelone)

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Prednisolone elicits mild mineralocorticoid activity and moderate anti-inflammatory effects; controls or prevents inflammation by controlling rate of protein synthesis, suppressing migration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) and fibroblasts, reversing capillary permeability, and stabilizing lysosomes at cellular level.

Class Summary

Nintedanib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor that targets growth factors (eg, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor [VEGFR], fibroblast growth factor receptor [FGFR], platelet-derived growth factor receptor [PDGFR] 1-3, colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor [CSFIR]) that are implicated in the pathogenesis of interstitial lung diseases.

Nintedanib (Ofev)

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Nintedanib is indicated to slow the rate of decline in pulmonary function in patients who have interstitial lung disease (ILD) associated with scleroderma. It is also indicated for chronic fibrosing ILDs with a progressive phenotype. Unclassifiable ILDs, autoimmune ILDs, chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis, sarcoidosis, myositis, Sjögren syndrome, coal worker pneumoconiosis, and idiopathic forms of interstitial pneumonias (eg, idiopathic nonspecific interstitial pneumonia [NSIP]) are among the diseases that may develop a progressive form of chronic fibrosing ILD.

Class Summary

These agents inhibit key factors involved in immune reactions.

Azathioprine (Imuran, Azasan)

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Azathioprine is an imidazolyl derivative of 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP). Many of its biologic effects are similar to those of the parent compound. Both compounds are eliminated rapidly from blood and are oxidized or methylated in erythrocytes and liver. No azathioprine or 6-MP is detectable in the urine 8 hours after being taken.

Azathioprine antagonizes purine metabolism and inhibits synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. The mechanism whereby it affects autoimmune diseases is unknown. It works primarily on T cells, suppressing hypersensitivities of the cell-mediated type and causing variable alterations in antibody production. Immunosuppressive, delayed hypersensitivity, and cellular cytotoxicity test results are suppressed to a greater degree than antibody responses. Azathioprine works very slowly; a 6- to 12-month trial may be required before effects are observed.

As many as 10% of patients may have idiosyncratic reactions that rule out the use of azathioprine. Do not allow the white blood cell (WBC) count to drop below 3000/µL or the lymphocyte count to drop below 1000/µL. The drug is available in tablet form for oral administration or in 100-mg vials for intravenous (IV) injection.

Cyclosporine (Gengraf, Neoral, Sandimmune)

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Cyclosporine is a cyclic polypeptide that suppresses some humoral immunity and, to a greater extent, cell-mediated immune reactions. Suppresses mRNA expression of Th2 cytokines (interleukins 4 and 13) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

Class Summary

Antineoplastic agents inhibit cell growth and proliferation.

Cyclophosphamide

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Cyclophosphamide is primarily used for treating several types of cancer and autoimmune disorders. It is related to the nitrogen mustard group, and its mode of action involves alkylation and cross-linking of DNA. Cyclophosphamide is used for several different types of rheumatic disease, including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and sometimes rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

Methotrexate (Trexall, Rheumatrex, Otrexup, Rasuvo)

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Methotrexate is an antimetabolite used in the treatment of certain neoplastic diseases, severe psoriasis, and adult rheumatoid arthritis. It inhibits dihydrofolic acid reductase. Dihydrofolates must be reduced to tetrahydrofolates by this enzyme before they can be used as carriers of single-carbon groups in the synthesis of purine nucleotides and thymidylate. Methotrexate therefore interferes with DNA synthesis, repair, and cellular replication.

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Connective Tissue Disease-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease (CTD-ILD). Pulmonary hypertension is a complication of various collagen vascular diseases, referred to as connective tissue diseases. This lung biopsy specimen demonstrates severe interstitial fibrosis and medial fibrosis, as well as smooth muscle hyperplasia of a pulmonary arteriole, features that are compatible with pulmonary hypertension.
Connective Tissue Disease-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease (CTD-ILD). Note the heliotrope rash in a woman with dermatomyositis.
Connective Tissue Disease-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease (CTD-ILD). This image reveals Gottron papules and nail-fold telangiectasia in a patient with dermatomyositis.
Connective Tissue Disease-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease (CTD-ILD). This image shows the classic malar rash (butterfly rash), with distribution over the cheeks and nasal bridge. Note that the fixed erythema (sometimes associated with mild induration, as seen here) characteristically spares the nasolabial folds.
Connective Tissue Disease-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease (CTD-ILD). The high-resolution computed tomography scan of advanced-stage pulmonary fibrosis demonstrates reticular opacities with honeycombing in a predominantly subpleural distribution. This pattern can be present in rheumatoid arthritis–related interstitial lung disease, Sjögren syndrome, and scleroderma.
Connective Tissue Disease-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease (CTD-ILD). Ground-glass opacification (GGO) may correlate with active alveolitis and a favorable response to therapy. GGO is among the earliest features of rheumatoid arthritis–induced interstitial lung disease.
Connective Tissue Disease-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease (CTD-ILD). This chest radiograph was obtained from a patient with lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia.
Connective Tissue Disease-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease (CTD-ILD). The histologic image is from a patient with usual interstitial pneumonitis. Subpleural and paraseptal inflammation are present, with the appearance of temporal heterogeneity. Patchy scarring of the lung parenchyma and normal (or nearly normal) alveoli interspersed between fibrotic areas are hallmarks of this disease. In addition, the lung architecture is completely destroyed. This pattern can be present in rheumatoid arthritis–induced interstitial lung disease and is generally associated with a poor prognosis.
Connective Tissue Disease-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease (CTD-ILD). In reviewing a retrospective database, Odham et al (Chicago cohort), showed a significant difference in mortality for patients with and without autoimmune features. CTD-ILD = Connective tissue disease-associated interstitial lung disease; IPAF = interstitial pneumonia with autoimmune features; IPF = idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis; UIP = usual interstitial pneumonia. Reproduced with permission of the © ERS 2019. Eur Resp J. 2016 Jun:47(6):1767-75. DOI: 10.1183/13993003.01565-2015. Published 31 May 2016. PMID: 27103387.

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Table 1. Important Physical Findings in Connective Tissue Diseases

CTD	Skin and Musculoskeletal System	Lungs	Heart	Salivary Glands	Eyes
RA^*	Subcutaneous nodules, digital ulcers, nail-fold infarcts	Bibasilar Velcro crackles, signs of pulmonary hypertension, pleural effusion	Pericarditis, myocarditis	N/A	N/A
SLE^*	Malar rash, alopecia, livedo reticularis, erythema, telangiectasia, capillary infarcts, polyarthritis	Pleural effusion or rub, pneumonitis, cor pulmonale, diaphragmatic weakness	Pericarditis, myocarditis, CAD	N/A	N/A
SD	Thickening of skin of face, fingers, and hands; Raynaud phenomenon and ischemic changes of fingertips	Cor pulmonale, inspiratory "Velcro crackles" at lung bases	Restrictive pericardial disease, conduction defects, CHF	N/A	N/A
SS^*	Secondary SS can manifest similarly to RA and SLE	Secondary SS can manifest similarly to RA and SLE	N/A	Xerostomia, parotid gland swelling	Keratoconjunctivitis sicca
PM	Proximal muscle weakness	Respiratory muscle failure	N/A	N/A	N/A
DM	Heliotrope rash of eyelids, Gottron papules	Respiratory muscle failure	N/A	N/A	N/A
AS	Sacroiliitis	Restriction in chest expansion, pulmonary apical fibrosis	Aortic insufficiency	N/A	Anterior uveitis
^* Mixed connective tissue disease (MCTD) can manifest with the signs and symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), or Sjögren syndrome (SS). AS = ankylosing spondylitis; CAD = coronary artery disease; CHF = congestive heart failure; CTD = connective-tissue disease; DM = dermatomyositis; PM = polymyositis; SD = scleroderma.

Table 2. Autoantibodies in Connective Tissue Diseases

Autoantibody	RA	SLE	SD	SS	PM/DM	AS	MCTD	IPAF #^[10]
RF	+	+	+	+	Rare	-	+	Possible
ANA	+	+	+	+	Rare	-	+ (speckled)	Possible
ds-DNA	-	+	-	-	-	-	-	Possible
Anti centromere	-	-	+ (limited)	Rare	Rare	-	-	Possible
Scl-70	-	-	+ (diffuse)		Rare	-	-	Possible
Anti-Jo	-	-	-	Rare	+ (ILD)	-	-	Possible
ANCA	Rare	Rare	-	-	-	-	-	-
Smith antibody	-	+	-	-	-	-	-	Possible
Anti-Ro/SSA and anti-La/SSB	-	-	-	+	-	-	-	Possible
Anti-U1-RNP and anti-UN-70 kd	-	-	-	-	-	-	+	Possible
Anti-CCP	+	-	-	-	-	-	-	Possible
ANA = antinuclear antibody; ANCA = antineutrophilic cytoplasmic antibody; AS = ankylosing spondylitis; CCP = cyclic citrullinated peptide; DM = dermatomyositis; ds-DNA = double-stranded DNA antibody; ILD = interstitial lung disease; IPAF = interstitial pneumonia with autoimmune features; MCTD = mixed connective-tissue disease; PM = polymyositis; RA = rheumatoid arthritis; RF = rheumatoid factor; RNP = ribonucleoprotein; SD = scleroderma; SLE = systemic lupus erythematosus; SS = Sjögren syndrome.

Table 3. Radiologic Patterns of Connective Tissue Diseases

Radiologic Pattern	RA	SLE	SD	Secondary SS	PM/DM	AS	MCTD	IPAF ^[10]
Pleural effusion	+	+	+	±	-	-	+	May be present
Interstitial pneumonitis, fibrosis	UIP and NSIP patterns	+	LIP pattern	±	+	Upper apical fibrosis^[59]	+	NISP, OP, LIP or NISP with OP overlap pattern
BOOP	±	+	+	+	+	±	±
Pulmonary nodules	Rheumatoid pulmonary nodules; uncommon, maybe 1-5 mm, single or multiple, may cavitate	-	-	Follicular lymphoid hyperplasia or lymphoma can present as lung nodules	+	-	-
Bronchiectasis	+	+	+	+	+	+	+	unexplained airflow obstruction, bronchiolitis or bronchiectasis.
Caplan syndrome	Coal worker pneumoconiosis, rheumatoid nodules	-	-	-	-	-	±
Diffuse pulmonary hemorrhage	-	+	-	-	-	-	±
Shrinking lung syndrome	-	Loss of lung volume at bases with no parenchymal pathology	-	-	-	-	±
Diaphragmatic dysfunction	-	+	-	May be present	+	-	±
Cysts, honeycombing	10% of patients have subpleural honeycombing; compared with IPF, it is more anterior and involves upper lobes	Uncommon	+	Present, especially in LIP	+	Upper-lobe cyst may become infected with Aspergillus species	-
GGO	Present, especially in NSIP	+	+	+	+	-	±
AS = ankylosing spondylitis; BOOP = bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia; DM = dermatomyositis; GGO = ground-glass opacification; IPAF = interstitial pneumonia with autoimmune features; IPF = idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis; LIP = lymphoid interstitial pneumonia; MCTD = mixed connective-tissue disease; NSIP = nonspecific interstitial pneumonia; OP = organizing pneumonia; PM = polymyositis; RA = rheumatoid arthritis; SD = scleroderma; SLE = systemic lupus erythematosus; SS = Sjögren syndrome; UIP = usual interstitial pneumonia.

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Author

Aniruddh Kapoor, MBBS Fellow in Pulmonary Disease and Critical Care Medicine, St Louis University Hospital

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Setu K Patolia, MD, MPH Assistant Professor of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Director of Interventional Pulmonary Services, Associate Program Director for Pulmonary and Critical Care Fellowship, St Louis University School of Medicine

Setu K Patolia, MD, MPH is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for Bronchology and Interventional Pulmonology, American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, Society of Critical Care Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

David Picker, MD, MBA Attending Physician, Department of Pulmonary Disease and Critical Care Medicine, St Louis University School of Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Chief Editor

Zab Mosenifar, MD, FACP, FCCP Geri and Richard Brawerman Chair in Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Professor and Executive Vice Chairman, Department of Medicine, Medical Director, Women's Guild Lung Institute, Cedars Sinai Medical Center, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine

Zab Mosenifar, MD, FACP, FCCP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Physicians, American Federation for Medical Research, American Thoracic Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Additional Contributors

Daniel R Ouellette, MD, FCCP Associate Professor of Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine; Medical Director, Pulmonary Medicine General Practice Unit (F2), Senior Staff and Attending Physician, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Henry Ford Hospital

Daniel R Ouellette, MD, FCCP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, Society of Critical Care Medicine

Disclosure: Received research grant from: Sanofi Pharmaceutical.

Arshad Ali, MD Attending Physician, Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mercy General Hospital of Sacramento

Arshad Ali, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Physicians, American Thoracic Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Danilo A Enriquez, MD, FCCP Clinical Assistant Professor of Medicine, State University of New York Health Science Center at Brooklyn; Associate Program Director of Internal Medicine Residency Program, Interfaith Medical Center

Danilo A Enriquez, MD, FCCP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Physicians, American Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Isabel F Pedraza, MD Director, Respiratory Intensive Care Unit, Faculty Physician, Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary/Critical Care Medicine, Women's Guild Lung Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Acknowledgements

Om Prakash Sharma, MD, FRCP, FCCP, DTM&H Professor, Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine

Om Prakash Sharma, MD, FRCP, FCCP, DTM&H is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology, American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Physicians, American Federation for Medical Research, American Osler Society, American Thoracic Society, New York Academy of Medicine, and Royal Society of Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

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