Hepatitis B Questions & Answers

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hepatitis B information for health professionals: hepatitis B FAQs for health professionals. http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/HBV/index.htm. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/HBV/index.htm. Updated May 31, 2015; Accessed: May 23, 2017.

2. Sorrell MF, Belongia EA, Costa J, et al. National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Statement: management of hepatitis B. Ann Intern Med. 2009 Jan 20. 150(2):104-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

3. McMahon BJ, Holck P, Bulkow L, Snowball M. Serologic and clinical outcomes of 1536 Alaska Natives chronically infected with hepatitis B virus. Ann Intern Med. 2001 Nov 6. 135(9):759-68. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Chang MH, Chen CJ, Lai MS, et al. Universal hepatitis B vaccination in Taiwan and the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in children. Taiwan Childhood Hepatoma Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1997 Jun 26. 336(26):1855-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

5. Fattovich G, Giustina G, Schalm SW, et al. Occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma and decompensation in western European patients with cirrhosis type B. The EUROHEP Study Group on Hepatitis B Virus and Cirrhosis. Hepatology. 1995 Jan. 21(1):77-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

6. Yu MC, Yuan JM, Ross RK, Govindarajan S. Presence of antibodies to the hepatitis B surface antigen is associated with an excess risk for hepatocellular carcinoma among non-Asians in Los Angeles County, California. Hepatology. 1997 Jan. 25(1):226-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

7. Yang HI, Yeh SH, Chen PJ, et al. Associations between hepatitis B virus genotype and mutants and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2008 Aug 20. 100(16):1134-43. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

8. Te HS, Jensen DM. Epidemiology of hepatitis B and C viruses: a global overview. Clin Liver Dis. 2010 Feb. 14(1):1-21, vii. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

9. World Health Organization. Weekly epidemiological record (WER): global routine vaccination coverage. 2011;86(46):509-20. Available at http://www.who.int/wer/2011/wer8646/en/index.html. Accessed: June 13, 2013.

10. Blumberg BS. Australia antigen and the biology of hepatitis B. Science. 1977 Jul 1. 197(4298):17-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

11. Norder H, Courouce AM, Magnius LO. Complete genomes, phylogenetic relatedness, and structural proteins of six strains of the hepatitis B virus, four of which represent two new genotypes. Virology. 1994 Feb. 198(2):489-503. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

12. Lau JY, Wright TL. Molecular virology and pathogenesis of hepatitis B. Lancet. 1993 Nov 27. 342(8883):1335-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

13. Chisari FV, Ferrari C. Hepatitis B virus immunopathology. Springer Semin Immunopathol. 1995. 17(2-3):261-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

14. Davies SE, Portmann BC, O'Grady JG, et al. Hepatic histological findings after transplantation for chronic hepatitis B virus infection, including a unique pattern of fibrosing cholestatic hepatitis. Hepatology. 1991 Jan. 13(1):150-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

15. Kahila Bar-Gal G, Kim MJ, Klein A, et al. Tracing hepatitis B virus to the 16th century in a Korean mummy. Hepatology. 2012 Nov. 56(5):1671-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

16. Gish RG, Locarnini S. Chronic hepatitis B viral infection. Yamada T, ed. Textbook of Gastroenterology. 5th ed. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing; 2009. 2112-38.

17. Jung MC, Diepolder HM, Pape GR. T cell recognition of hepatitis B and C viral antigens. Eur J Clin Invest. 1994 Oct. 24(10):641-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Chisari FV. Cytotoxic T cells and viral hepatitis. J Clin Invest. 1997 Apr 1. 99(7):1472-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

19. Kuo A, Gish R. Chronic hepatitis B infection. Clin Liver Dis. 2012 May. 16(2):347-69. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Tong W, He J, Sun L, He S, Qi Q. Hepatitis B virus with a proposed genotype I was found in Sichuan Province, China. J Med Virol. 2012 Jun. 84(6):866-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

21. Sonneveld MJ, Rijckborst V, Zeuzem S, et al. Presence of precore and core promoter mutants limits the probability of response to peginterferon in hepatitis B e antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2012 Jul. 56(1):67-75. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Fattovich G, Giustina G, Christensen E, et al. Influence of hepatitis delta virus infection on morbidity and mortality in compensated cirrhosis type B. The European Concerted Action on Viral Hepatitis (Eurohep). Gut. 2000 Mar. 46(3):420-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

23. Wursthorn K, Manns MP, Wedemeyer H. Natural history: the importance of viral load, liver damage and HCC. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2008. 22(6):1063-79. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

24. Heidrich B, Serrano BC, Idilman R, et al. HBeAg-positive hepatitis delta: virological patterns and clinical long-term outcome. Liver Int. 2012 Oct. 32(9):1415-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Wang J, Zhao W, Cheng L, et al. CD137-mediated pathogenesis from chronic hepatitis to hepatocellular carcinoma in hepatitis B virus-transgenic mice. J Immunol. 2010 Dec 15. 185(12):7654-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

26. Thursz MR, Thomas HC, Greenwood BM, Hill AV. Heterozygote advantage for HLA class-II type in hepatitis B virus infection. Nat Genet. 1997 Sep. 17(1):11-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

27. Jouanguy E, Lamhamedi-Cherradi S, Altare F, et al. Partial interferon-gamma receptor 1 deficiency in a child with tuberculoid bacillus Calmette-Guérin infection and a sibling with clinical tuberculosis. J Clin Invest. 1997 Dec 1. 100(11):2658-64. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

28. Zhou J, Chen DQ, Poon VK, et al. A regulatory polymorphism in interferon-gamma receptor 1 promoter is associated with the susceptibility to chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Immunogenetics. 2009 Jun. 61(6):423-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. Frodsham AJ, Zhang L, Dumpis U, et al. Class II cytokine receptor gene cluster is a major locus for hepatitis B persistence. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Jun 13. 103(24):9148-53. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

30. Alper CA, Kruskall MS, Marcus-Bagley D, et al. Genetic prediction of nonresponse to hepatitis B vaccine. N Engl J Med. 1989 Sep 14. 321(11):708-12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Davila S, Froeling FE, Tan A, et al. New genetic associations detected in a host response study to hepatitis B vaccine. Genes Immun. 2010 Apr. 11(3):232-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

32. CDC. Viral hepatitis surveillance report 2018 — hepatitis B. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/statistics/2018surveillance/HepB.htm. 2020 July 27; Accessed: Acessed: October 26, 2020.

33. [Guideline] Kowdley KV, Wang CC, Welch S, Roberts H, Brosgart CL. Prevalence of chronic hepatitis B among foreign-born persons living in the United States by country of origin. Hepatology. 2012 Aug. 56(2):422-33. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. Nebbia G, Peppa D, Maini MK. Hepatitis B infection: current concepts and future challenges. QJM. 2012 Feb. 105(2):109-13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

35. Kim BK, Han KH, Ahn SH. Prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Oncology. 2011. 81 Suppl 1:41-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

36. Han YF, Zhao J, Ma LY, et al. Factors predicting occurrence and prognosis of hepatitis-B-virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol. 2011 Oct 14. 17(38):4258-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

37. Caputo R, Gelmetti C, Ermacora E, Gianni E, Silvestri A. Gianotti-Crosti syndrome: a retrospective analysis of 308 cases. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1992 Feb. 26(2 Pt 1):207-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. [Guideline] Terrault NA, Bzowej NH, Chang KM, et al, for the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. AASLD guidelines for treatment of chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2016 Jan. 63(1):261-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

39. Arora S, Martin CL, Herbert M. Myth: interpretation of a single ammonia level in patients with chronic liver disease can confirm or rule out hepatic encephalopathy. CJEM. 2006 Nov. 8(6):433-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

40. [Guideline] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2015 Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. Viral hepatitis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/std/tg2015/hepatitis.htm. June 4, 2015; Accessed: May 26, 2017.

41. Finnish Medical Society Duodecim. Viral hepatitis. EBM Guidelines. Evidence-Based Medicine [Internet]. Helsinki, Finland: Wiley Interscience; 2008.

42. New York State Department of Health. Hepatitis B virus. New York, NY: New York State Department of Health; 2008. Available at http://guideline.gov/content.aspx?id=12812. Accessed: June 13, 2013.

43. Barclay L. USPSTF shifts course, favors hepatitis B screening. Medscape Medical News. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/825948. May 30, 2014; Accessed: June 2, 2014.

44. LeFevre ML, U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for hepatitis B virus infection in nonpregnant adolescents and adults: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2014 Jul 1. 161(1):58-66. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

45. Chou R, Dana T, Bougatsos C, Blazina I, Khangura J, Zakher B. Screening for hepatitis B virus infection in adolescents and adults: a systematic review to update the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation. Ann Intern Med. 2014 Jul 1. 161(1):31-45. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

46. Rajbhandari R, Chung RT. Screening for hepatitis B virus infection: a public health imperative. Ann Intern Med. 2014 Jul 1. 161(1):76-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

47. Eckman MH, Kaiser TE, Sherman KE. The cost-effectiveness of screening for chronic hepatitis B infection in the United States. Clin Infect Dis. 2011 Jun. 52(11):1294-306. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

48. [Guideline] Terrault NA, Lok ASF, McMahon BJ, et al. Update on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of chronic hepatitis B: AASLD 2018 hepatitis B guidance. Hepatology. 2018 Apr. 67 (4):1560-99. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

49. Smith BD, Morgan RL, Beckett GA, et al. Recommendations for the identification of chronic hepatitis C virus infection among persons born during 1945-1965. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2012 Aug 17. 61:1-32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

50. Chou R, Cottrell EB, Wasson N, Rahman B, Guise JM. Screening for hepatitis C virus infection in adults: a systematic review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2013 Jan 15. 158(2):101-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

51. Trinchet JC, Chaffaut C, Bourcier V, et al. Ultrasonographic surveillance of hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhosis: a randomized trial comparing 3- and 6-month periodicities. Hepatology. 2011 Dec. 54(6):1987-97. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

52. US Food and Drug Administration. 510(k) Premarket notification: Hepatiq. Available at http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfpmn/pmn.cfm?ID=K142891. Accessed: January 11, 2015.

53. Business Wire. FDA clears Hepatiq [press release]. Hepatiq: Hepatic Quantitation. Available at http://www.hepatiq.com/fdaclearshepatiq.html. Accessed: January 11, 2015.

54. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. HALT-C (Hepatitis C Antiviral Long-term Treatment against Cirrhosis) trial website. Available at http://archives.niddk.nih.gov/haltctrial/displaypage.aspx?pagename=haltctrial/index.htm. Accessed: January 11, 2015.

55. [Guideline] World Health Organization. Guidelines for the prevention, care and treatment of persons with chronic hepatitis B infection. Geneva, Switzerland; WHO. 2015 Mar. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

56. Lok AS, McMahon BJ. Chronic hepatitis B: update 2009. Hepatology. 2009 Sep. 50(3):661-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

57. [Guideline] Papatheodoridis G, Buti M, Cornberg M, et al, for the European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines: Management of chronic hepatitis B virus infection. J Hepatol. 2012 Jul. 57(1):167-85. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

58. [Guideline] Liaw YF, Leung N, Kao JH, et al. Asian-Pacific consensus statement on the management of chronic hepatitis B: a 2008 update. Hepatol Int. 2008 Sep. 2(3):263-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

59. [Guideline] Sherman M, Shafran S, Burak K, et al. Management of chronic hepatitis B: consensus guidelines. Can J Gastroenterol. 2007 Jun. 21 Suppl C:5C-24C. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

60. [Guideline] Kennedy PT, Lee HC, Jeyalingam L, et al. NICE guidelines and a treatment algorithm for the management of chronic hepatitis B: a review of 12 years experience in west London. Antivir Ther. 2008. 13(8):1067-76. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

61. Keeffe EB, Dieterich DT, Han SH, et al. A treatment algorithm for the management of chronic hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: an update. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006 Aug. 4(8):936-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

62. New York State Department of Health. Prevention of secondary disease: preventive medicine. Viral hepatitis. New York, NY: New York State Department of Health; 2010. Available at http://guideline.gov/content.aspx?id=24043. Accessed: June 13, 2013.

63. Pharmasset voluntarily halts clinical studies with clevudine in hepatitis B infected patients. Medical News Today. Available at http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/146749.php. April 21, 2009; Accessed: June 13, 2013.

64. Mutimer D, Naoumov N, Honkoop P, et al. Combination alpha-interferon and lamivudine therapy for alpha-interferon-resistant chronic hepatitis B infection: results of a pilot study. J Hepatol. 1998 Jun. 28(6):923-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

65. Gara N, Zhao X, Collins MT, et al. Renal tubular dysfunction during long-term adefovir or tenofovir therapy in chronic hepatitis B. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2012 Jun. 35(11):1317-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

66. Lange CM, Bojunga J, Hofmann WP, et al. Severe lactic acidosis during treatment of chronic hepatitis B with entecavir in patients with impaired liver function. Hepatology. 2009 Dec. 50(6):2001-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

67. Wong DK, Cheung AM, O'Rourke K, Naylor CD, Detsky AS, Heathcote J. Effect of alpha-interferon treatment in patients with hepatitis B e antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B. A meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 1993 Aug 15. 119(4):312-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

68. Tseng TC, Liu CJ, Su TH, et al. Serum hepatitis B surface antigen levels predict surface antigen loss in hepatitis B e antigen seroconverters. Gastroenterology. 2011 Aug. 141(2):517-25, 525.e1-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

69. Yi Z, Jie YW, Nan Z. The efficacy of anti-viral therapy on hepatitis B virus-associated glomerulonephritis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Hepatol. 2011 Apr-Jun. 10(2):165-73. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

70. Guillevin L, Mahr A, Cohen P, et al. Short-term corticosteroids then lamivudine and plasma exchanges to treat hepatitis B virus-related polyarteritis nodosa. Arthritis Rheum. 2004 Jun 15. 51(3):482-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

71. Lau GK, Piratvisuth T, Luo KX, et al. Peginterferon Alfa-2a, lamivudine, and the combination for HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med. 2005 Jun 30. 352(26):2682-95. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

72. Marcellin P, Lau GK, Bonino F, et al. Peginterferon alfa-2a alone, lamivudine alone, and the two in combination in patients with HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med. 2004 Sep 16. 351(12):1206-17. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

73. Lai CL, Gane E, Liaw YF, et al. Telbivudine (LdT) vs. lamivudine for chronic hepatitis B: first-year results from the international phase III GLOBE trial [abstract]. Hepatology. 2005. 42:748A.

74. Liaw YF, Gane E, Leung N, et al. 2-Year GLOBE trial results: telbivudine Is superior to lamivudine in patients with chronic hepatitis B. Gastroenterology. 2009 Feb. 136(2):486-95. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

75. Tenney DJ, Pokornowski KA, Rose RE, et al. Entecavir maintains a high genetic barrier to HBV resistance through 6 years in naive patients [abstract]. J Hepatol. 2009. 50(Suppl 1):S10.

76. Wong GL, Wong VW, Chan HY, et al. Undetectable HBV DNA at month 12 of entecavir treatment predicts maintained viral suppression and HBeAg-seroconversion in chronic hepatitis B patients at 3 years. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2012 Jun. 35(11):1326-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

77. Chang TT, Gish RG, de Man R, et al. A comparison of entecavir and lamivudine for HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med. 2006 Mar 9. 354(10):1001-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

78. Chang TT, Lai CL, Kew Yoon S, et al. Entecavir treatment for up to 5 years in patients with hepatitis B e antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2010 Feb. 51(2):422-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

79. Schiff ER, Lee SS, Chao YC, et al. Long-term treatment with entecavir induces reversal of advanced fibrosis or cirrhosis in patients with chronic hepatitis B. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2011 Mar. 9(3):274-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

80. Schnittman SM, Pierce PF. Potential role of lamivudine (3TC) in the clearance of chronic hepatitis B virus infection in a patient coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus type. Clin Infect Dis. 1996 Sep. 23(3):638-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

81. Dienstag JL, Schiff ER, Wright TL, et al. Lamivudine as initial treatment for chronic hepatitis B in the United States. N Engl J Med. 1999 Oct 21. 341(17):1256-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

82. Grellier L, Mutimer D, Ahmed M, et al. Lamivudine prophylaxis against reinfection in liver transplantation for hepatitis B cirrhosis. Lancet. 1996 Nov 2. 348(9036):1212-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

83. Gatanaga H, Hayashida T, Tanuma J, Oka S. Prophylactic effect of antiretroviral therapy on hepatitis B virus infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2013 Jun. 56(12):1812-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

84. Tipples GA, Ma MM, Fischer KP, Bain VG, Kneteman NM, Tyrrell DL. Mutation in HBV RNA-dependent DNA polymerase confers resistance to lamivudine in vivo. Hepatology. 1996 Sep. 24(3):714-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

85. Honkoop P, Niesters HG, de Man RA, Osterhaus AD, Schalm SW. Lamivudine resistance in immunocompetent chronic hepatitis B. Incidence and patterns. J Hepatol. 1997 Jun. 26(6):1393-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

86. Marcellin P, Chang TT, Lim SG, et al. Adefovir dipivoxil for the treatment of hepatitis B e antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med. 2003 Feb 27. 348(9):808-16. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

87. Hadziyannis SJ, Tassopoulos NC, Heathcote EJ, et al. Long-term therapy with adefovir dipivoxil for HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med. 2005 Jun 30. 352(26):2673-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

88. Yang H, Westland CE, Delaney WE 4th, et al. Resistance surveillance in chronic hepatitis B patients treated with adefovir dipivoxil for up to 60 weeks. Hepatology. 2002 Aug. 36(2):464-73. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

89. Villeneuve JP, Durantel D, Durantel S, et al. Selection of a hepatitis B virus strain resistant to adefovir in a liver transplantation patient. J Hepatol. 2003 Dec. 39(6):1085-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

90. Angus P, Vaughan R, Xiong S, et al. Resistance to adefovir dipivoxil therapy associated with the selection of a novel mutation in the HBV polymerase. Gastroenterology. 2003 Aug. 125(2):292-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

91. Chang TT, Lai CL. Hepatitis B virus with primary resistance to adefovir. N Engl J Med. 2006 Jul 20. 355(3):322-3; author reply 323. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

92. Heathcote J, George J, Gordon S, et al. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) for the treatment of HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B: week 72 TDF data and week 24 adefovir dipivoxil switch data (study 103) [abstract]. J Hepatol. 2008. 48(suppl 2):S32.

93. Marcellin P, Jacobson I, Habersetzer F, et al. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) for the treatment of HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B: week 72 TDF data and week 24 adefovir dipivoxil switch data (study 102) [abstract]. J Hepatol. 2008. 48(suppl 2):S26.

94. Marcellin P, Heathcote EJ, Buti M, et al. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate versus adefovir dipivoxil for chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med. 2008 Dec 4. 359(23):2442-55. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

95. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 86: Viral hepatitis in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2007 Oct. 110(4):941-56. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

96. US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for hepatitis B virus infection in pregnancy: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force reaffirmation recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2009 Jun 16. 150(12):869-73, W154. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

97. [Guideline] World Health Organization. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis B virus: guidelines on antiviral prophylaxis in pregnancy. Geneva, Switzerland. 2020 Jul. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

98. Lin CL, Kao JH. Hepatitis B: immunization and impact on natural history and cancer incidence. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2020 Jun. 49(2):201-14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

99. Behre U, Bleckmann G, Crasta PD, et al. Long-term anti-HBs antibody persistence and immune memory in children and adolescents who received routine childhood hepatitis B vaccination. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2012 Jun. 8(6):813-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

100. Heplisav-B (hepatitis B vaccine [recombinant], adjuvanted) [package insert]. Berkeley, CA: Dynavax Technologies, Corp. November, 2017. Available at [Full Text].

101. Malarkey MA, Gruber MF. Biologics License Application (BLA) approval (BL 125428) (hepatitis B vaccine (recombinant), adjuvanted [Heplisav-B]). US Food and Drug Administration. Available at https://www.fda.gov/downloads/biologicsbloodvaccines/vaccines/approvedproducts/ucm584820.pdf. November 9, 2017; Accessed: November 13, 2017.

102. Weir J. Biologics License Application (BLA) (BL 125428/1) supplement approval (hepatitis B vaccine (recombinant), adjuvanted [Heplisav-B]). US Food and Drug Administration. Available at https://www.fda.gov/downloads/BiologicsBloodVaccines/Vaccines/ApprovedProducts/UCM602537.pdf. March 22, 2018; Accessed: April 20, 2018.

103. [Guideline] Schillie S, Harris A, Link-Gelles R, Romero J, Ward J, Nelson N. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices for use of a hepatitis B vaccine with a novel adjuvant. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018 Apr 20. 67 (15):455-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

104. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Use of hepatitis B vaccination for adults with diabetes mellitus: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011 Dec 23. 60(50):1709-11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

105. Juday T, Tang H, Harris M, Powers AZ, Kim E, Hanna GJ. Adherence to chronic hepatitis B treatment guideline recommendations for laboratory monitoring of patients who are not receiving antiviral treatment. J Gen Intern Med. 2011 Mar. 26(3):239-44. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

106. El-Serag HB, Davila JA. Surveillance for hepatocellular carcinoma: in whom and how?. Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 2011 Jan. 4(1):5-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

107. Hoofnagle JH. Reactivation of hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2009 May. 49(5 suppl):S156-65. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

108. Hagiyama H, Kubota T, Komano Y, Kurosaki M, Watanabe M, Miyasaka N. Fulminant hepatitis in an asymptomatic chronic carrier of hepatitis B virus mutant after withdrawal of low-dose methotrexate therapy for rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2004 May-Jun. 22(3):375-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

109. Narvaez J, Rodriguez-Moreno J, Martinez-Aguila MD, Clavaguera MT. Severe hepatitis linked to B virus infection after withdrawal of low dose methotrexate therapy. J Rheumatol. 1998 Oct. 25(10):2037-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

110. Markovic S, Drozina G, Vovk M, Fidler-Jenko M. Reactivation of hepatitis B but not hepatitis C in patients with malignant lymphoma and immunosuppressive therapy. A prospective study in 305 patients. Hepatogastroenterology. 1999 Sep-Oct. 46(29):2925-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

111. Sheen IS, Liaw YF, Lin SM, Chu CM. Severe clinical rebound upon withdrawal of corticosteroid before interferon therapy: incidence and risk factors. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 1996 Feb. 11(2):143-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

112. Navarro R, Vilarrasa E, Herranz P, et al. Safety and effectiveness of ustekinumab and antitumour necrosis factor therapy in patients with psoriasis and chronic viral hepatitis B or C: a retrospective, multicentre study in a clinical setting. Br J Dermatol. 2013 Mar. 168(3):609-16. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

113. Germanidis G, Hytiroglou P, Zakalka M, Settas L. Reactivation of occult hepatitis B virus infection, following treatment of refractory rheumatoid arthritis with abatacept. J Hepatol. 2012 Jun. 56(6):1420-1. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

114. [Guideline] European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL 2017 clinical practice guidelines on the management of hepatitis B virus infection. J Hepatol. 2017 Aug. 67 (2):370-98. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

115. [Guideline] Abara WE, Qaseem A, Schillie S, McMahon BJ, Harris AM, for the High Value Care Task Force of the American College of Physicians and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hepatitis B vaccination, screening, and linkage to care: best practice advice from the American College of Physicians and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Ann Intern Med. 2017 Dec 5. 167 (11):794-804. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

116. Phillips D. Clinical guideline on HBV released by ACP, CDC. Medscape Medical News. Available at https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/888975. November 21, 2017; Accessed: January 16, 2018.

117. [Guideline] European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines for the management of patients with decompensated cirrhosis. J Hepatol. 2018 Aug. 69 (2):406-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

118. [Guideline] European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines: management of hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol. 2018 Jul. 69 (1):182-236. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

119. [Guideline] Chustecka Z. Boxed warning on HBV reactivation for blood cancer drugs. Medscape Medical News. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/811629. September 25, 2013; Accessed: October 2, 2013.

120. [Guideline] FDA. Arzerra (ofatumumab) and Rituxan (rituximab): drug safety communication - new boxed warning, recommendations to decrease risk of hepatitis B reactivation. US Food and Drug Administration. Available at http://www.fda.gov/safety/medwatch/safetyinformation/safetyalertsforhumanmedicalproducts/ucm369846.htm. September 25, 2013; Accessed: October 2, 2013.

121. Hadziyannis SJ, Tassopoulos NC, Heathcote EJ, et al. Long-term therapy with adefovir dipivoxil for HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B for up to 5 years. Gastroenterology. 2006 Dec. 131(6):1743-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

122. Marcellin P, Gane E, Buti M, et al. Regression of cirrhosis during treatment with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate for chronic hepatitis B: a 5-year open-label follow-up study. Lancet. 2013 Feb 9. 381(9865):468-75. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

123. Purcell RH. The discovery of the hepatitis viruses. Gastroenterology. 1993 Apr. 104(4):955-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

124. Tang KH, Yusoff K, Tan WS. Display of hepatitis B virus PreS1 peptide on bacteriophage T7 and its potential in gene delivery into HepG2 cells. J Virol Methods. 2009 Aug. 159(2):194-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

125. Thibault V, Laperche S, Akhavan S, Servant-Delmas A, Belkhiri D, Roque-Afonso AM. Impact of hepatitis B virus genotypes and surface antigen variants on the performance of HBV real time PCR quantification. J Virol Methods. 2009 Aug. 159(2):265-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

126. Dan C. FDA approves Vemlidy (tenofovir alafenamide) for chronic hepatitis B in adults. US Department of Health and Human Services. Available at https://www.hhs.gov/hepatitis/blog/2016/11/21/fda-approves-vemlidy-tenofovir-alafenamide-for-chronic-hepatitis-b-in-adults.html. November 21, 2016; Accessed: May 23, 2017.

127. US Food and Drug Administration. For patients: hepatitis B and C treatments. Available at https://www.fda.gov/forpatients/illness/hepatitisbc/ucm408658.htm. Updated: January 31, 2017; Accessed: May 23, 2017.

128. Gilead Sciences, Inc. US Food and Drug Administration approves Gilead’s Vemlidy (tenofovir alafenamide) for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B virus infection [press release]. Available at http://www.gilead.com/news/press-releases/2016/11/us-food-and-drug-administration-approves-gileads-vemlidy-tenofovir-alafenamide-for-the-treatment-of-chronic-hepatitis-b-virus-infection. November 10, 2017; Accessed: May 23, 2017.

129. Zhao Q, Liu K, Zhu X, et al. Anti-viral effect in chronic hepatitis B patients with normal or mildly elevated alanine aminotransferase. Antiviral Res. 2020 Oct 13. 184:104953. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

130. Tripathi N, Mousa OY. Hepatitis B. StatPearls [Internet]. 2020 Jan. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

Nikolaos T Pyrsopoulos, MD, PhD, MBA, FACP, AGAF, FAASLD, FRCP(Edin) Professor and Chief, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Professor of Physiology, Pharmacology, and Neuroscience, Medical Director of Liver Transplantation, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School

Nikolaos T Pyrsopoulos, MD, PhD, MBA, FACP, AGAF, FAASLD, FRCP(Edin) is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases, American College of Gastroenterology, American College of Physicians, American Gastroenterological Association, American Liver Foundation, American Medical Association, American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, American Society of Transplantation, International Liver Transplantation Society, Transplantation Society

Disclosure: Received research grant from: GRIFOLS. BAYER, DURECT, INTERCEPT, BEIGENE, BMS.

K Rajender Reddy, MD, FACP, FACG Ruimy Family President's Distinguished Professor of Medicine, Professor of Medicine in Surgery, Director of Hepatology, Medical Director of Liver Transplantation, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania

K Rajender Reddy, MD, FACP, FACG is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases, American College of Gastroenterology, American College of Physicians, American Gastroenterological Association, American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, Florida Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

BS Anand, MD Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine

BS Anand, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases, American College of Gastroenterology, American Gastroenterological Association, American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

George Y Wu, MD, PhD Professor, Department of Medicine, Director, Hepatology Section, Herman Lopata Chair in Hepatitis Research, University of Connecticut School of Medicine

George Y Wu, MD, PhD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases, American Gastroenterological Association, American Medical Association, American Society for Clinical Investigation, and Association of American Physicians

Disclosure: Springer Consulting fee Consulting; Gilead Consulting fee Review panel membership; Gilead Honoraria Speaking and teaching; Bristol-Myers Squibb Honoraria Speaking and teaching; Springer Royalty Review panel membership

• Print this section
• Print the entire contents of
• Print the entire contents of article