US National Library of Medicine. Constipation. MedlinePlus. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/constipation.html. Updated: May 7, 2019; Accessed: July 5, 2019.
Peery AF, Crockett SD, Murphy CC, et al. Burden and cost of gastrointestinal, liver, and pancreatic diseases in the United States: update 2018. Gastroenterology. 2019 Jan. 156 (1):254-72.e11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Bharucha AE, Lacy BE. Mechanisms, evaluation, and management of chronic constipation. Gastroenterology. 2020 Apr. 158 (5):1232-49.e3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
US Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves Amitiza for IBS-C [press release]. April 29, 2008. Available at http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2008/ucm116889.htm. Accessed: April 30, 2008.
Jeffrey S. FDA approves Amitiza for opioid-induced constipation. Medscape Medical News. April 23, 2013. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/802953. Accessed: April 24, 2013.
Pizensy (lactitol) [package insert]. Braintree, MA: Braintree Laboratories, Inc. February 2020. Available at [Full Text].
Pharmaceutical Business Review. Ironwood Pharma, Forest Labs Present Linaclotide Phase 3 Trial Results. pharmaceutical-business-review.com. Available at http://clinicaltrials.pharmaceutical-business-review.com/news/ironwood_pharma_forest_labs_present_linaclotide_phase_3_trial_results_100504/. Accessed: May 4, 2010.
US Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves Trulance for chronic idiopathic constipation. January 19, 2017. Available at http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm537725.htm. Accessed: January 26, 2017.
Plecanatide (Trulance) [package insert]. New York, NY: Synergy Pharmaceuticals Inc. 2017 January. Available at [Full Text].
Simren M, Palsson OS, Whitehead WE. Update on Rome IV criteria for colorectal disorders: implications for clinical practice. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2017 Apr. 19(4):15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Uher R, Farmer A, Henigsberg N, et al. Adverse reactions to antidepressants. Br J Psychiatry. 2009 Sep. 195(3):202-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Staats PS, Markowitz J, Schein J. Incidence of constipation associated with long-acting opioid therapy: a comparative study. South Med J. 2004 Feb. 97(2):129-34. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Martin BC, Barghout V, Cerulli A. Direct medical costs of constipation in the United States. Manag Care Interface. 2006 Dec. 19(12):43-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Peppas G, Alexiou VG, Mourtzoukou E, et al. Epidemiology of constipation in Europe and Oceania: a systematic review. BMC Gastroenterol. 2008 Feb 12. 8:5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Sonnenberg A, Koch TR. Epidemiology of constipation in the United States. Dis Colon Rectum. 1989 Jan. 32(1):1-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bouras EP, Tangalos EG. Chronic constipation in the elderly. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2009 Sep. 38(3):463-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Amselem C, Puigdollers A, Azpiroz F, et al. Constipation: a potential cause of pelvic floor damage?. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2010 Feb. 22(2):150-3, e48. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Noguera A, Centeno C, Librada S, Nabal M. Screening for constipation in palliative care patients. J Palliat Med. 2009 Oct. 12(10):915-20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Taghavi SA, Shabani S, Mehramiri A, et al. Colchicine is effective for short-term treatment of slow transit constipation: a double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2010 Mar. 25(3):389-94. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lu PL, Mousa HM. Constipation: beyond the old paradigms. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2018 Dec. 47 (4):845-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Park SY, Burton D, Busciglio I, Eckert D, Camilleri M. Regional colonic transit pattern does not conclusively identify evacuation disorders in constipated patients with delayed colonic transit. J Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2017 Jan 30. 23(1):92-100. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gladman MA, Knowles CH. Novel concepts in the diagnosis, pathophysiology and management of idiopathic megabowel. Colorectal Dis. 2008 Jul. 10(6):531-8; discussion 538-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Pergolizzi JV Jr, Christo PJ, LeQuang JA, Magnusson P. The use of peripheral μ-opioid receptor antagonists (PAMORA) in the management of opioid-induced constipation: an update on their efficacy and safety. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2020. 14:1009-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Brooks M. FDA issues safety warning for sodium phosphate for constipation. January 8, 2014. Medscape from WebMD. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/818859. Accessed: January 13, 2014.
FDA Safety Announcement. FDA warns of possible harm from exceeding recommended dose of over-the-counter sodium phosphate products to treat constipation. US Food and Drug Administration. Available at http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm380757.htm. Accessed: January 13, 2014.
Tack J, Boardman H, Layer P, et al. An expert consensus definition of failure of a treatment to provide adequate relief (F-PAR) for chronic constipation - an international Delphi survey. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2017 Feb. 45(3):434-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ford AC, Suares NC. Effect of laxatives and pharmacological therapies in chronic idiopathic constipation: systematic review and meta-analysis. Gut. 2011 Feb. 60(2):209-18. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wald A. Constipation: pathophysiology and management. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2015 Jan. 31(1):45-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
FDA Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. NDA approval (210166): Prucalopride (Motegrity) for the treatment of chronic idiopathic constipation. December 14, 2018. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2018/210166Orig1s000Approv.pdf.
Yiannakou Y, Piessevaux H, Bouchoucha M, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial to evaluate the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of prucalopride in men with chronic constipation. Am J Gastroenterol. 2015 May. 110(5):741-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Motegrity (prucalopride) prescribing information [package insert]. Lexington, MA: Shire US Inc. December 2018. Available at [Full Text].
Melville NA. Long-term efficacy with lubiprostone in opioid constipation. September 9, 2013. Medscape from WebMD. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/810646. Accessed: September 16, 2013.
Lembo AJ, Kurtz CB, Macdougall JE, et al. Efficacy of linaclotide for patients with chronic constipation. Gastroenterology. 2010 Mar. 138(3):886-95.e1. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lembo AJ, Schneier HA, Shiff SJ, et al. Two randomized trials of linaclotide for chronic constipation. N Engl J Med. 2011 Aug 11. 365(6):527-36. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Rao S, Lembo AJ, Shiff SJ, et al. A 12-week, randomized, controlled trial with a 4-week randomized withdrawal period to evaluate the efficacy and safety of linaclotide in irritable bowel syndrome with constipation. Am J Gastroenterol. 2012 Nov. 107(11):1714-24; quiz p.1725. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Brown SR. Tegaserod for chronic constipation. J Fam Pract. 2005 Dec. 54(12):1060, 1063. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Di Palma JA. Expert commentary--new developments in the treatment of constipation. MedGenMed. 2005 Jan 1. 7(1):17. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Layer P, Keller J, Loeffler H, et al. Tegaserod in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) with constipation as the prime symptom. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2007 Mar. 3(1):107-18. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Zelnorm (tegaserod) emergency treatment IND program. Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corp. July 16, 2014.
Summary minutes of the Gastrointestinal Drugs Advisory Committee. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. October 17, 2018. Available at https://www.fda.gov/downloads/AdvisoryCommittees/CommitteesMeetingMaterials/Drugs/GastrointestinalDrugsAdvisoryCommittee/UCM626241.pdf. Accessed: Jan 11, 2019.
Johanson JF. Review of the treatment options for chronic constipation. MedGenMed [serial online]. May 2, 2007. 9(2):25-40. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/550956. Accessed: April 26, 2010.
Hsiao KC, Jao SW, Wu CC, et al. Hand-assisted laparoscopic total colectomy for slow transit constipation. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2008 Apr. 23(4):419-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Tomita R, Fujisak S. Minilaparotomy with a gasless laparoscopic-assisted procedure by abdominal wall lifting for ileorectal anastomosis in patients with slow transit constipation. Hepatogastroenterology. 2009 Jul-Aug. 56(93):1022-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Frascio M, Stabilini C, Ricci B, et al. Stapled transanal rectal resection for outlet obstruction syndrome: results and follow-up. World J Surg. 2008 Jun. 32(6):1110-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bona S, Battafarano F, Fumagalli Romario U, et al. Stapled anopexy: postoperative course and functional outcome in 400 patients. Dis Colon Rectum. 2008 Jun. 51(6):950-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
van den Esschert JW, van Geloven AA, Vermulst N, Groenedijk AG, de Wit LT, Gerhards MF. Laparoscopic ventral rectopexy for obstructed defecation syndrome. Surg Endosc. 2008 Dec. 22(12):2728-32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Mowatt G, Glazener C, Jarrett M. Sacral nerve stimulation for fecal incontinence and constipation in adults: a short version Cochrane review. Neurourol Urodyn. 2008. 27(3):155-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Holzer B, Rosen HR, Novi G, et al. Sacral nerve stimulation in patients with severe constipation. Dis Colon Rectum. 2008 May. 51(5):524-9; discussion 529-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Biggs WS, Dery WH. Evaluation and treatment of constipation in infants and children. Am Fam Physician. 2006 Feb 1. 73(3):469-77. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cryer B, Katz S, Vallejo R, Popescu A, Ueno R. A randomized study of lubiprostone for opioid-induced constipation in patients with chronic noncancer pain. Pain Med. 2014 Nov. 15(11):1825-34. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Jeffrey S. FDA approves Amitiza for opioid-induced constipation. Medscape Medical News. April 23, 2013. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/802953. Accessed: April 30, 2013.
Anderson P. FDA okays naloxegol (Movantik) in opioid-induced constipation. Medscape Medical News. September 16, 2014. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/831780. Accessed: September 21, 2014.
US Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves Movantik for opioid-induced constipation. September 16, 2014. Available at http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm414620.htm. Accessed: September 21, 2014.
Chey WD, Webster L, Sostek M, Lappalainen J, Barker PN, Tack J. Naloxegol for opioid-induced constipation in patients with noncancer pain. N Engl J Med. 2014 Jun 19. 370(25):2387-96. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Webster L, Chey WD, Tack J, Lappalainen J, Diva U, Sostek M. Randomised clinical trial: the long-term safety and tolerability of naloxegol in patients with pain and opioid-induced constipation. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2014 Oct. 40(7):771-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Relistor (methylnaltrexone bromide) subcutaneous injection [package insert]. Tarrytown, NY: Progenics Pharmaceuticals, Inc. September, 2014. Available at [Full Text].
Shionogi Inc, Purdue Pharma LP. FDA approves Symproic (naldemedine) once-daily tablets C-II for the treatment of opioid-induced constipation in adults with chronic non-cancer pain [press release]. March 23, 2017. Available at http://www.shionogi.com/newsroom/article.html#122509. Accessed: March 28, 2017.
Webster L, Nalamachu S, Yamada T, Reddy J, Baba Y, Ferreira J. Long-term safety and efficacy of naldemedine for the treatment of opioid-induced constipation in subjects with chronic non-cancer pain receiving opioid therapy: results from a 52-week Phase 3 clinical trial [abstract]. Presented at: PAINWeek, September 7, 2016, Las Vegas, Nevada.
Jang HJ, Chung JY, Seo JH, Moon JS, Choe BH, Shim JO. Nationwide survey for application of ROME IV criteria and clinical practice for functional constipation in children. J Korean Med Sci. 2019 Jul 8. 34 (26):e183. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Camilleri M, Beyens G, Kerstens R, Robinson P, Vandeplassche L. Safety assessment of prucalopride in elderly patients with constipation: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2009 Dec. 21(12):1256-e117. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lacy BE, Patel NK. Rome criteria and a diagnostic approach to irritable bowel syndrome. J Clin Med. 2017 Oct 26. 6(11):[QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Lacy BE, Mearin F, Chang L, et al. Bowel Disorders. Gastroenterology. 2016 May. 150(6):1393-1407e5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Schmulson MJ, Drossman DA. What is new in Rome IV. J Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2017 Apr 30. 23(2):151-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Tack J, Drossman DA. What's new in Rome IV?. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2017 Sep. 29(9):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Martoni CJ, Evans M, Chow CT, Chan LS, Leyer G. Impact of a probiotic product on bowel habits and microbial profile in subjects with functional constipation: a randomized controlled trial. J Dig Dis. 2019 Jul 4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].