[Guideline] Morgenstern LB, Hemphill JC 3rd, Anderson C, Becker K, Broderick JP, Connolly ES Jr, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2010 Sep. 41(9):2108-29. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Feigin VL, Lawes CM, Bennett DA, Anderson CS. Stroke epidemiology: a review of population-based studies of incidence, prevalence, and case-fatality in the late 20th century. Lancet Neurol. 2003 Jan. 2(1):43-53. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
[Guideline] Broderick J, Connolly S, Feldmann E, Hanley D, Kase C, Krieger D, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage in adults: 2007 update: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council, High Blood Pressure Research Council, and the Quality of Care and Outcomes in Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Circulation. 2007 Oct 16. 116(16):e391-413. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kim EY, Na DG, Kim SS, Lee KH, Ryoo JW, Kim HK. Prediction of hemorrhagic transformation in acute ischemic stroke: role of diffusion-weighted imaging and early parenchymal enhancement. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2005 May. 26(5):1050-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Roger VL, Go AS, Lloyd-Jones DM, Benjamin EJ, Berry JD, Borden WB, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics--2012 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2012 Jan 3. 125(1):e2-e220. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Adams HP Jr, Bendixen BH, Kappelle LJ, Biller J, Love BB, Gordon DL, et al. Classification of subtype of acute ischemic stroke. Definitions for use in a multicenter clinical trial. TOAST. Trial of Org 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment. Stroke. 1993 Jan. 24(1):35-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Thrift AG, Dewey HM, Macdonell RA, McNeil JJ, Donnan GA. Incidence of the major stroke subtypes: initial findings from the North East Melbourne stroke incidence study (NEMESIS). Stroke. 2001 Aug. 32(8):1732-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Donnan GA, Fisher M, Macleod M, Davis SM. Stroke. Lancet. 2008 May 10. 371(9624):1612-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Mullins ME, Lev MH, Schellingerhout D, Gonzalez RG, Schaefer PW. Intracranial hemorrhage complicating acute stroke: how common is hemorrhagic stroke on initial head CT scan and how often is initial clinical diagnosis of acute stroke eventually confirmed?. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2005 Oct. 26(9):2207-12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Nighoghossian N, Hermier M, Adeleine P, Blanc-Lasserre K, Derex L, Honnorat J, et al. Old microbleeds are a potential risk factor for cerebral bleeding after ischemic stroke: a gradient-echo T2*-weighted brain MRI study. Stroke. 2002 Mar. 33(3):735-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Auer RN, Sutherland GR. Primary intracerebral hemorrhage: pathophysiology. Can J Neurol Sci. 2005 Dec. 32 Suppl 2:S3-12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Thrift AG, Donnan GA, McNeil JJ. Epidemiology of intracerebral hemorrhage. Epidemiol Rev. 1995. 17(2):361-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gokaslan ZL, Narayan RK. Intracranial hemorrhage in the hypertensive patient. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 1992. Vol. 2:171-86.
International Warfarin Pharmacogenetics Consortium, Klein TE, Altman RB, et al. Estimation of the warfarin dose with clinical and pharmacogenetic data. N Engl J Med. 2009 Feb 19. 360(8):753-64. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Rist PM, Buring JE, Ridker PM, Kase CS, Kurth T, Rexrode KM. Lipid levels and the risk of hemorrhagic stroke among women. Neurology. 2019 Apr 10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chapman AB, Rubinstein D, Hughes R, Stears JC, Earnest MP, Johnson AM, et al. Intracranial aneurysms in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. N Engl J Med. 1992 Sep 24. 327(13):916-20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Regalado E, Medrek S, Tran-Fadulu V, et al. Autosomal dominant inheritance of a predisposition to thoracic aortic aneurysms and dissections and intracranial saccular aneurysms. Am J Med Genet A. 2011 Sep. 155A(9):2125-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Dubey N, Bakshi R, Wasay M, Dmochowski J. Early computed tomography hypodensity predicts hemorrhage after intravenous tissue plasminogen activator in acute ischemic stroke. J Neuroimaging. 2001 Apr. 11(2):184-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Stroke Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1995 Dec 14. 333(24):1581-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
González RG. Imaging-guided acute ischemic stroke therapy: From "time is brain" to "physiology is brain". AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2006 Apr. 27(4):728-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Albers GW, Amarenco P, Easton JD, Sacco RL, Teal P. Antithrombotic and thrombolytic therapy for ischemic stroke: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest. 2004 Sep. 126(3 Suppl):483S-512S. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Murray CJ, Lopez AD. Mortality by cause for eight regions of the world: Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet. 1997 May 3. 349(9061):1269-76. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Shiber JR, Fontane E, Adewale A. Stroke registry: hemorrhagic vs ischemic strokes. Am J Emerg Med. 2010 Mar. 28(3):331-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Flaherty ML, Woo D, Haverbusch M, Sekar P, Khoury J, Sauerbeck L, et al. Racial variations in location and risk of intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke. 2005 May. 36(5):934-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Global Burden of Stroke. The Atlas of Heart Disease and Stroke. MacKay J, Mensah GA. World Health Organization. [Full Text].
Sacco S, Marini C, Toni D, Olivieri L, Carolei A. Incidence and 10-year survival of intracerebral hemorrhage in a population-based registry. Stroke. 2009. 40:394–399.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC. Prevalence of stroke--United States, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2007 May 18. 56(19):469-74. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hemphill JC 3rd, Bonovich DC, Besmertis L, Manley GT, Johnston SC. The ICH score: a simple, reliable grading scale for intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke. 2001 Apr. 32(4):891-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Zhu XL, Chan MS, Poon WS. Spontaneous intracranial hemorrhage: which patients need diagnostic cerebral angiography? A prospective study of 206 cases and review of the literature. Stroke. 1997 Jul. 28(7):1406-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hughes S. BP Control More Important in ICH Patients on Antithrombotics. Medscape Medical News. May 15 2014. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/825206. Accessed: May 20 2014.
Passero S, Rocchi R, Rossi S, Ulivelli M, Vatti G. Seizures after spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral hemorrhage. Epilepsia. 2002 Oct. 43(10):1175-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Vespa PM, O'Phelan K, Shah M, Mirabelli J, Starkman S, Kidwell C, et al. Acute seizures after intracerebral hemorrhage: a factor in progressive midline shift and outcome. Neurology. 2003 May 13. 60(9):1441-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Connolly ES Jr, Rabinstein AA, Carhuapoma JR, Derdeyn CP, Dion J, Higashida RT, et al. Guidelines for the management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/american Stroke Association. Stroke. 2012 Jun. 43(6):1711-37. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
[Guideline] Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, Rich R, Humphrey LL, Frost J, Forciea MA, et al. Pharmacologic Treatment of Hypertension in Adults Aged 60 Years or Older to Higher Versus Lower Blood Pressure Targets: A Clinical Practice Guideline From the American College of Physicians and the American Academy of Family Physicians. Ann Intern Med. January 17, 2017. [Full Text].
Misra UK, Kalita J, Ranjan P, Mandal SK. Mannitol in intracerebral hemorrhage: a randomized controlled study. J Neurol Sci. 2005 Jul 15. 234(1-2):41-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Avorn J, Kesselheim A. A hemorrhage of off-label use. Ann Intern Med. 2011 Apr 19. 154(8):566-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Yank V, Tuohy CV, Logan AC, et al. Systematic Review: Benefits and Harms of In-Hospital Use of Recombinant Factor VIIa for Off-Label Indications. Ann Intern Med. 2011 Apr 19. 154(8):529-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Logan AC, Yank V, Stafford RS. Off-Label Use of Recombinant Factor VIIa in U.S. Hospitals: Analysis of Hospital Records. Ann Intern Med. 2011 Apr 19. 154(8):516-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Mayer SA, Brun NC, Begtrup K, Broderick J, Davis S, Diringer MN, et al. Efficacy and safety of recombinant activated factor VII for acute intracerebral hemorrhage. N Engl J Med. 2008 May 15. 358(20):2127-37. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Diringer MN, Skolnick BE, Mayer SA, Steiner T, Davis SM, Brun NC, et al. Thromboembolic events with recombinant activated factor VII in spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: results from the Factor Seven for Acute Hemorrhagic Stroke (FAST) trial. Stroke. 2010 Jan. 41(1):48-53. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Sarode R, Matevosyan K, Bhagat R, Rutherford C, Madden C, Beshay JE. Rapid warfarin reversal: a 3-factor prothrombin complex concentrate and recombinant factor VIIa cocktail for intracerebral hemorrhage. J Neurosurg. 2012 Mar. 116(3):491-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lankiewicz MW, Hays J, Friedman KD, Tinkoff G, Blatt PM. Urgent reversal of warfarin with prothrombin complex concentrate. J Thromb Haemost. 2006 May. 4(5):967-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Huttner HB, Schellinger PD, Hartmann M, Köhrmann M, Juettler E, Wikner J, et al. Hematoma growth and outcome in treated neurocritical care patients with intracerebral hemorrhage related to oral anticoagulant therapy: comparison of acute treatment strategies using vitamin K, fresh frozen plasma, and prothrombin complex concentrates. Stroke. 2006 Jun. 37(6):1465-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Steiner T, Freiberger A, Griebe M, Hüsing J, Ivandic B, Kollmar R, et al. International normalised ratio normalisation in patients with coumarin-related intracranial haemorrhages--the INCH trial: a randomised controlled multicentre trial to compare safety and preliminary efficacy of fresh frozen plasma and prothrombin complex--study design and protocol. Int J Stroke. 2011 Jun. 6(3):271-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Flint AC, Conell C, Rao VA, et al. Effect of statin use during hospitalization for intracerebral hemorrhage on mortality and discharge disposition. JAMA Neurol. 2014 Sep 22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Anderson P. In-hospital statins linked to better outcome in ICH. Medscape Medical News. September 22, 2014. [Full Text].
Mendelow AD, Gregson BA, Fernandes HM, Murray GD, Teasdale GM, Hope DT, et al. Early surgery versus initial conservative treatment in patients with spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral haematomas in the International Surgical Trial in Intracerebral Haemorrhage (STICH): a randomised trial. Lancet. 2005 Jan 29-Feb 4. 365(9457):387-97. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gregson BA, Broderick JP, Auer LM, Batjer H, Chen XC, Juvela S, et al. Individual patient data subgroup meta-analysis of surgery for spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke. 2012 Jun. 43(6):1496-504. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Steiner T, Vincent C, Morris S, Davis S, Vallejo-Torres L, Christensen MC. Neurosurgical outcomes after intracerebral hemorrhage: results of the Factor Seven for Acute Hemorrhagic Stroke Trial (FAST). J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2011 Jul-Aug. 20(4):287-94. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Mendelow AD, Gregson BA, Mitchell PM, Murray GD, Rowan EN, Gholkar AR. Surgical trial in lobar intracerebral haemorrhage (STICH II) protocol. Trials. 2011 May 17. 12:124. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Molyneux AJ, Kerr RS, Yu LM, Clarke M, Sneade M, Yarnold JA, et al. International subarachnoid aneurysm trial (ISAT) of neurosurgical clipping versus endovascular coiling in 2143 patients with ruptured intracranial aneurysms: a randomised comparison of effects on survival, dependency, seizures, rebleeding, subgroups, and aneurysm occlusion. Lancet. 2005 Sep 3-9. 366(9488):809-17. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Byrne JV. The aneurysm "clip or coil" debate. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2006 Feb. 148(2):115-20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
McDougall CG, Spetzler RF, Zabramski JM, Partovi S, Hills NK, Nakaji P, et al. The Barrow Ruptured Aneurysm Trial. J Neurosurg. 2012 Jan. 116(1):135-44. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lanzino G. The Barrow Ruptured Aneurysm Trial. J Neurosurg. 2012 Jan. 116(1):133-4; discussion 134. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hunt WE, Hess RM. Surgical risk as related to time of intervention in the repair of intracranial aneurysms. J Neurosurg. 1968 Jan. 28(1):14-20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Fisher CM, Kistler JP, Davis JM. Relation of cerebral vasospasm to subarachnoid hemorrhage visualized by computerized tomographic scanning. Neurosurgery. 1980 Jan. 6(1):1-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
[Guideline] Goldstein LB, Bushnell CD, Adams RJ, Appel LJ, Braun LT, Chaturvedi S, et al. Guidelines for the primary prevention of stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2011 Feb. 42(2):517-84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
McKinney JS, Kostis WJ. Statin therapy and the risk of intracerebral hemorrhage: a meta-analysis of 31 randomized controlled trials. Stroke. 2012 Aug. 43(8):2149-56. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, Bosch J, Davies R, Dagenais G. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med. 2000 Jan 20. 342(3):145-53. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
PROGRESS Collaborative Group. Randomised trial of a perindopril-based blood-pressure-lowering regimen among 6,105 individuals with previous stroke or transient ischaemic attack. Lancet. 2001 Sep 29. 358(9287):1033-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs diuretic: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). JAMA. 2002 Dec 18. 288(23):2981-97. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Dahlöf B, Devereux RB, Kjeldsen SE, Julius S, Beevers G, de Faire U, et al. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the Losartan Intervention For Endpoint reduction in hypertension study (LIFE): a randomised trial against atenolol. Lancet. 2002 Mar 23. 359(9311):995-1003. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Schrader J, Lüders S, Kulschewski A, Hammersen F, Plate K, Berger J, et al. Morbidity and Mortality After Stroke, Eprosartan Compared with Nitrendipine for Secondary Prevention: principal results of a prospective randomized controlled study (MOSES). Stroke. 2005 Jun. 36(6):1218-26. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kurl S, Laukkanen JA, Rauramaa R, Lakka TA, Sivenius J, Salonen JT. Cardiorespiratory fitness and the risk for stroke in men. Arch Intern Med. 2003 Jul 28. 163(14):1682-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Yock-Corrales A, Mackay MT, Mosley I, Maixner W, Babl FE. Acute childhood arterial ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2011 Aug. 58(2):156-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ahmed N, Näsman P, Wahlgren NG. Effect of intravenous nimodipine on blood pressure and outcome after acute stroke. Stroke. 2000 Jun. 31(6):1250-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Aso K, Ogasawara K, Sasaki M, Kobayashi M, Suga Y, Chida K, et al. Preoperative cerebrovascular reactivity to acetazolamide measured by brain perfusion SPECT predicts development of cerebral ischemic lesions caused by microemboli during carotid endarterectomy. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2009 Feb. 36(2):294-301. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Becker H, Desch H, Hacker H, Pencz A. CT fogging effect with ischemic cerebral infarcts. Neuroradiology. 1979 Oct 31. 18(4):185-92. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Borisch I, Horn M, Butz B, Zorger N, Draganski B, Hoelscher T, et al. Preoperative evaluation of carotid artery stenosis: comparison of contrast-enhanced MR angiography and duplex sonography with digital subtraction angiography. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2003 Jun-Jul. 24(6):1117-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bose A, Henkes H, Alfke K, Reith W, Mayer TE, Berlis A, et al. The Penumbra System: a mechanical device for the treatment of acute stroke due to thromboembolism. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2008 Aug. 29(7):1409-13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bozzao L, Bastianello S, Fantozzi LM, Angeloni U, Argentino C, Fieschi C. Correlation of angiographic and sequential CT findings in patients with evolving cerebral infarction. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1989 Nov-Dec. 10(6):1215-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bozzao L, Fantozzi LM, Bastianello S, Bozzao A, Argentino C, Lenzi GL, et al. Ischaemic supratentorial stroke: angiographic findings in patients examined in the very early phase. J Neurol. 1989 Sep. 236(6):340-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Brott T, Adams HP Jr, Olinger CP, Marler JR, Barsan WG, Biller J, et al. Measurements of acute cerebral infarction: a clinical examination scale. Stroke. 1989 Jul. 20(7):864-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Brown PB, Zwiebel WJ, Call GK. Degree of cervical carotid artery stenosis and hemispheric stroke: duplex US findings. Radiology. 1989 Feb. 170(2):541-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Burdette JH, Ricci PE, Petitti N, Elster AD. Cerebral infarction: time course of signal intensity changes on diffusion-weighted MR images. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1998 Sep. 171(3):791-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Carroll BA. Duplex sonography in patients with hemispheric symptoms. J Ultrasound Med. 1989 Oct. 8(10):535-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chandra VR, Pandav R, Laxminarayan R, et al. Neurologic Disorders. Jamison DT, Measham AR, Breman JB, et al, eds. Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press and The World Bank; 2006. 627-43.
Chappell FM, Wardlaw JM, Young GR, Gillard JH, Roditi GH, Yip B, et al. Carotid artery stenosis: accuracy of noninvasive tests--individual patient data meta-analysis. Radiology. 2009 May. 251(2):493-502. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
de Virgilio C, Toosie K, Arnell T, Lewis RJ, Donayre CE, Baker JD, et al. Asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis screening in patients with lower extremity atherosclerosis: a prospective study. Ann Vasc Surg. 1997 Jul. 11(4):374-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Delgado AL, Jahromi B, Muller N, Farhat H, Salame J, Zauner A. Endovascular therapy of cerebral vasospasm: two year experience with angioplasty and/or intraarterial administration of nicardipine and verapamil. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2008. 104:347-51.
Eastwood JD, Lev MH, Azhari T, Lee TY, Barboriak DP, Delong DM, et al. CT perfusion scanning with deconvolution analysis: pilot study in patients with acute middle cerebral artery stroke. Radiology. 2002 Jan. 222(1):227-36. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Elster AD, Moody DM. Early cerebral infarction: gadopentetate dimeglumine enhancement. Radiology. 1990 Dec. 177(3):627-32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Goldenberg G, Reisner T. Angiographic findings in relation to clinical course and results of computed tomography in cerebrovascular disease. Eur Neurol. 1983. 22(2):124-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
González RG, Schaefer PW, Buonanno FS, Schwamm LH, Budzik RF, Rordorf G, et al. Diffusion-weighted MR imaging: diagnostic accuracy in patients imaged within 6 hours of stroke symptom onset. Radiology. 1999 Jan. 210(1):155-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Grant EG, Benson CB, Moneta GL, Alexandrov AV, Baker JD, Bluth EI, et al. Carotid artery stenosis: gray-scale and Doppler US diagnosis--Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound Consensus Conference. Radiology. 2003 Nov. 229(2):340-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Grant EG, Duerinckx AJ, El Saden SM, Melany ML, Hathout GM, Zimmerman PT, et al. Ability to use duplex US to quantify internal carotid arterial stenoses: fact or fiction?. Radiology. 2000 Jan. 214(1):247-52. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Karonen JO, Partanen PL, Vanninen RL, Vainio PA, Aronen HJ. Evolution of MR contrast enhancement patterns during the first week after acute ischemic stroke. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2001 Jan. 22(1):103-11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kucinski T, Väterlein O, Glauche V, Fiehler J, Klotz E, Eckert B, et al. Correlation of apparent diffusion coefficient and computed tomography density in acute ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2002 Jul. 33(7):1786-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lyden PD, Zivin JA. Hemorrhagic transformation after cerebral ischemia: mechanisms and incidence. Cerebrovasc Brain Metab Rev. 1993 Spring. 5(1):1-16. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Marks MP. CT in ischemic stroke. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 1998 Aug. 8(3):515-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Martin PJ, Enevoldson TP, Humphrey PR. Causes of ischaemic stroke in the young. Postgrad Med J. 1997 Jan. 73(855):8-16. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Meerwaldt R, Slart RH, van Dam GM, Luijckx GJ, Tio RA, Zeebregts CJ. PET/SPECT imaging: from carotid vulnerability to brain viability. Eur J Radiol. 2010 Apr. 74(1):104-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Minematsu K, Li L, Fisher M, Sotak CH, Davis MA, Fiandaca MS. Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging: rapid and quantitative detection of focal brain ischemia. Neurology. 1992 Jan. 42(1):235-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Nabavi DG, Cenic A, Craen RA, Gelb AW, Bennett JD, Kozak R, et al. CT assessment of cerebral perfusion: experimental validation and initial clinical experience. Radiology. 1999 Oct. 213(1):141-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Nishihara T, Nagata K, Tanaka S, Suzuki Y, Izumi M, Mochizuki Y, et al. Newly developed endoscopic instruments for the removal of intracerebral hematoma. Neurocrit Care. 2005. 2(1):67-74. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Noguchi K, Ogawa T, Inugami A, Fujita H, Hatazawa J, Shimosegawa E, et al. MRI of acute cerebral infarction: a comparison of FLAIR and T2-weighted fast spin-echo imaging. Neuroradiology. 1997 Jun. 39(6):406-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Oliveira-Filho J, Silva SC, Trabuco CC, Pedreira BB, Sousa EU, Bacellar A. Detrimental effect of blood pressure reduction in the first 24 hours of acute stroke onset. Neurology. 2003 Oct 28. 61(8):1047-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Oppenheim C, Logak M, Dormont D, Lehéricy S, Manaï R, Samson Y, et al. Diagnosis of acute ischaemic stroke with fluid-attenuated inversion recovery and diffusion-weighted sequences. Neuroradiology. 2000 Aug. 42(8):602-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Powers WJ, Grubb RL Jr, Darriet D, Raichle ME. Cerebral blood flow and cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen requirements for cerebral function and viability in humans. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1985 Dec. 5(4):600-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Pressman BD, Tourje EJ, Thompson JR. An early sign of ischemic infarction: increased density in a cerebral artery. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1987. 149(3):583-6.
Saur D, Kucinski T, Grzyska U, Eckert B, Eggers C, Niesen W, et al. Sensitivity and interrater agreement of CT and diffusion-weighted MR imaging in hyperacute stroke. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2003 May. 24(5):878-85. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Schaefer PW, Hassankhani A, Putman C, Sorensen AG, Schwamm L, Koroshetz W, et al. Characterization and evolution of diffusion MR imaging abnormalities in stroke patients undergoing intra-arterial thrombolysis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2004 Jun-Jul. 25(6):951-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Schaefer PW, Roccatagliata L, Ledezma C, Hoh B, Schwamm LH, Koroshetz W, et al. First-pass quantitative CT perfusion identifies thresholds for salvageable penumbra in acute stroke patients treated with intra-arterial therapy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2006 Jan. 27(1):20-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Schramm P, Schellinger PD, Klotz E, Kallenberg K, Fiebach JB, Külkens S, et al. Comparison of perfusion computed tomography and computed tomography angiography source images with perfusion-weighted imaging and diffusion-weighted imaging in patients with acute stroke of less than 6 hours' duration. Stroke. 2004 Jul. 35(7):1652-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Schuierer G, Huk W. The unilateral hyperdense middle cerebral artery: an early CT-sign of embolism or thrombosis. Neuroradiology. 1988. 30(2):120-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Shetty SK, Lev MH. CT perfusion in acute stroke. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 2005 Aug. 15(3):481-501, ix. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Skriver EB, Olsen TS. Transient disappearance of cerebral infarcts on CT scan, the so-called fogging effect. Neuroradiology. 1981. 22(2):61-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Smith TP, Enterline DS. Endovascular treatment of cerebral vasospasm. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2000 May. 11(5):547-59. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Smith WS, Sung G, Saver J, Budzik R, Duckwiler G, Liebeskind DS, et al. Mechanical thrombectomy for acute ischemic stroke: final results of the Multi MERCI trial. Stroke. 2008 Apr. 39(4):1205-12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Sorensen A, Copen W, Ostergaard L, Vainio PA, Aronen HJ. Hyperacute stroke: simultaneous measurement of relative cerebral blood volume, relative cerebral blood flow and mean tissue transit time. Radiology. 1999. 210 (2):519-27.
Sorensen AG, Buonanno FS, Gonzalez RG, Schwamm LH, Lev MH, Huang-Hellinger FR, et al. Hyperacute stroke: evaluation with combined multisection diffusion-weighted and hemodynamically weighted echo-planar MR imaging. Radiology. 1996 May. 199(2):391-401. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Steiner T, Freiberger A, Griebe M, Hüsing J, Ivandic B, Kollmar R, et al. International normalised ratio normalisation in patients with coumarin-related intracranial haemorrhages--the INCH trial: a randomised controlled multicentre trial to compare safety and preliminary efficacy of fresh frozen plasma and prothrombin complex--study design and protocol. Int J Stroke. 2011 Jun. 6(3):271-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Sunshine JL, Tarr RW, Lanzieri CF, Landis DM, Selman WR, Lewin JS. Hyperacute stroke: ultrafast MR imaging to triage patients prior to therapy. Radiology. 1999 Aug. 212(2):325-32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Tomura N, Uemura K, Inugami A, Fujita H, Higano S, Shishido F. Early CT finding in cerebral infarction: obscuration of the lentiform nucleus. Radiology. 1988 Aug. 168(2):463-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Torres-Mozqueda F, He J, Yeh IB, Schwamm LH, Lev MH, Schaefer PW, et al. An acute ischemic stroke classification instrument that includes CT or MR angiography: the Boston Acute Stroke Imaging Scale. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2008 Jun. 29(6):1111-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Toyoda K, Ida M, Fukuda K. Fluid-attenuated inversion recovery intraarterial signal: an early sign of hyperacute cerebral ischemia. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2001 Jun-Jul. 22(6):1021-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Truwit CL, Barkovich AJ, Gean-Marton A, Hibri N, Norman D. Loss of the insular ribbon: another early CT sign of acute middle cerebral artery infarction. Radiology. 1990 Sep. 176(3):801-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
von Kummer R, Meyding-Lamadé U, Forsting M, Rosin L, Rieke K, Hacke W, et al. Sensitivity and prognostic value of early CT in occlusion of the middle cerebral artery trunk. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1994 Jan. 15(1):9-15; discussion 16-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wetzel SG. Cerebral arteries and veins. Rubin GD, Rofsky NM, eds. CT and MR Angiography: Comprehensive Vascular Assessment. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2009. 381-441.
Williams LS, Yilmaz EY, Lopez-Yunez AM. Retrospective assessment of initial stroke severity with the NIH Stroke Scale. Stroke. 2000 Apr. 31(4):858-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wintermark M, Maeder P, Thiran JP, Schnyder P, Meuli R. Quantitative assessment of regional cerebral blood flows by perfusion CT studies at low injection rates: a critical review of the underlying theoretical models. Eur Radiol. 2001. 11(7):1220-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wong GK, Siu DY, Ahuja AT, King AD, Yu SC, Zhu XL, et al. Comparisons of DSA and MR angiography with digital subtraction angiography in 151 patients with subacute spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. J Clin Neurosci. 2010 May. 17(5):601-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Woodcock RJ Jr, Short J, Do HM, Jensen ME, Kallmes DF. Imaging of acute subarachnoid hemorrhage with a fluid-attenuated inversion recovery sequence in an animal model: comparison with non-contrast-enhanced CT. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2001 Oct. 22(9):1698-703. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Zia E, Engström G, Svensson PJ, Norrving B, Pessah-Rasmussen H. Three-year survival and stroke recurrence rates in patients with primary intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke. 2009 Nov. 40(11):3567-73. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].