Practice Essentials

Digital imaging is used for evaluation of dental caries, oral pathology, and presurgical and preorthodontic treatment assessment. With the conversion from legacy to digital imaging, the need for a software strategy emerged that would allow the communication of patient, diagnostic, and other acquisition data along with the imaging information. DICOM (Digital Imaging and Communication in Medicine) was created as the standard for handling, storing, printing, and transmitting information in medical imaging.^{[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]}

DICOM standards were first developed by the American College of Radiology and National Electrical Manufacturers Association.^{[2, 3]}These standards are regularly revised to improve compatibility with electronic records and improve clinical workflow in the medical environment. By using a standardized format, the images and associated data can be viewed regardless of the proprietary acquisition modality that was used to take the imaging study, allowing for cross-vendor interoperability or connectivity. Dentists are also able to communicate with their medical colleagues via HIPAA-compliant internet connections.

Dentistry has been actively involved in formulation of DICOM standards since 1996, when the American Dental Association joined the DICOM Committee. As a result, DICOM standards began to include definitions for image objects, with special categorization for intraoral projections and color photography. Today, most companies producing imaging devices (termed acquisition modalities) include DICOM image identification. Numerous software systems (termed picture archiving and communication systems, or PACS) have been developed to allow for the storage, retrieval, and viewing of digital DICOM images.

A DICOM file contains a patient's x-ray image or series of images and other patient-related information (eg, patient name, identification number, acquisition modality) as selected from a library of standardized terms. The DICOM library is extensive and continually updated to reflect changing identification standards. DICOM files are fully encrypted to allow safe electronic communication over the internet.

DICOM files can produce a 3D rotating image that includes segmented crowns, roots, and bone, allowing teeth to be covered or removed and show underlying structures. The DICOM file can also exhibit a series of 2D slices in 3D planes.^{[6, 7]}

Protocol standards defined by DICOM are used primarily used when communicating with a picture archiving and communication system (PACS). In dentistry, cone beam scans are typically stored by the imaging software in DICOM format. The other data format that has become important to dentistry is STL (stereolithography, or standard triangle language or standard tessellation language). STL describes the surface geometry of a 3D object and is the data format for most 3D printers and milling systems. STL breaks the volume surface into tiles.^{[8, 9, 10, 11]}

To generate a 3D user-friendly landscape, the DICOM file is converted to STL to convert and segment the teeth and jaws. There are a number of ways to create an STL model, including a manual segmentation program or automatic image segmentation using artificial intelligence. Utilization of 3D computer models help create setups and enable indirect bracket positioning for orthodontic devices.^{[6, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]}

Cinematic rendering (CR) is a novel visualization technique that uses physically based volume rendering to create photorealistic images from DICOM data. CR offers a fast approach to obtain realistic visualization of both dental and osseous structures. Studies have shown that CR provides dentists and oral surgeons with improved 3D understanding of anatomic structures, allowing for more intuitive treatment planning and patient communication.^[17]

The DICOM group that represents the dentistry specialty reviews issues related to DICOM standards, including the use of imaging in diagnosis, treatment simulation, treatment guidance, and tissue restoration; development of guidelines for standardization of digital photographic structured displays for both intraoral and extraoral projections; creation of templates for reports; development of guidelines for presentation states, including overlays used in dentistry; and surgical workflow issues within DICOM used in dental implantology.^[18]

Interoperability

In DICOM terminology, the device used to take an image is called an acquisition modality. Interoperability is important for an acquisition modality; it should be fully functional and operate without glitches. Theoretically, all devices should be able to connect with any other DICOM-compliant product; this is outlined in the conformance statement.

The DICOM conformance statement should contain the information necessary for technical use when modalities are connected.^[19]DICOM performance statements for various acquisition modalities and other connected machines are typically available for download on the manufacturer's website. The conformance statements for acquisition devices are standardized to allow comparison of DICOM devices from different manufacturers.

The DICOM conformance statement is simply a diagram that demonstrates, for example, that a digital dental x-ray taken by a specific intraoral imaging product will be downloaded to another vendor’s server and then displayed properly on another company’s computer monitor. According to the Radiological Society of North America, “The Conformance Statement must describe how an activity handles associations (ie, whether the activity initiates associations and accepts multiple associations) for each activity in the model. Some devices, such as the archives in a picture archiving and communication system, must support multiple associations if performance is to be acceptable. Otherwise, only a single activity (eg, DICOM storage) could be handled at any given time.”^[20]

Terminology

The following terms are used in the DICOM nomenclature.^[20]Although they may not be typically used by dentists in their day-to-day professional communications, it is important to understand their meaning if digital imaging is being considered or has been implemented:

Association: The communication connection that is established between 2 DICOM applications by which DICOM information is exchanged. One or more associations may be supported simultaneously.
Attributes: Items that describe something within DICOM, typically used to describe information objects.
Composite objects: Objects that are defined in DICOM corresponding to multiple or parts of multiple entities in the entity-relationship model.
Data elements: The contents of data sets or descriptive attributes that provide the characteristics of entities in the entity-relationship model.
Data set: The formal description of entities in the entity-relationship model, such as patients, equipment, and images, as well as how they are related based on an information-organization perspective.
Explicit VR: A method of including a value representation of an attribute in the attribute itself.
Implicit VR: A method of defining the value representation of an attribute in the data dictionary as defined by the American College of Radiology and National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
Information object instance: An information object to which real-world values have been assigned.
Information objects: Images, reports, and patients for which the function is to carry information.
Layer: A set of software or hardware that performs specific functions that are needed for the communications process.
Library: The generally accepted terms describing attributes such as patient name, identification number, and date of birth.
Normalized objects: Objects defined in DICOM that correspond to a single entity in the entity-relationship model.
Object-oriented analysis: The process of determining the object or entity-relationship model that describes a particular activity.
Packet: A portion of a larger message being communicated that has header information to instruct on the correct location and correct order if multiple packets are sent.
Protocol: The set of rules that allow 2 devices to communicate with each other. The layered communication whereby 1 layer in a device communicates with a corresponding layer is determined by protocols.
Service: A set of functions that are performed to allow communication between layers within a device.
Stack: A set of layers that allows communication to applications.
Tag: A numeric name for an attribute or data element.
Transfer syntax: The manner by which the value representation of the data elements is presented and their encoding (eg, the byte order and compression type) is performed.
Unique identifier: A numeric construct that is used when an entity is referenced. It is a unique name that allows the finding and retrieval of the desired entity and allows its distinction from other entities.
Value representation (VR): The description of how the attribute value is represented, such as by text, binary data, or patient name.

Acquisition Devices

An acquisition device is any instrument that produces a digitized image, including computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasound, digital projection radiography, and x-ray machines that allow periapical, panoramic, or cephalometric imaging.^[21]Dental digital imaging also includes three-dimensional CT, digital photography, and digitally-driven computer-aided design/manufacturing systems (CAD/CAM).^{[22, 23, 24]}

Generally, newer standard dental digital imaging equipment (eg, intraoral digital x-ray systems, panoramic imaging, cone beam CT) is DICOM compliant. However, the standards for DICOM compliance for some devices, including 3-dimensional computerized tomography and CAD/CAM systems, as well as interoperability with respect to picture archiving and communications systems (PACS), have not yet been established.

Most medical centers and large physician-based health management organizations use PACS to manage digital DICOM files, including acquisition, storage, retrieval, and viewing. In dentistry, the use of PACS is primarily limited to academic centers and dental clinics in large hospital facilities where there is need for transmission of data between departments.^[25]In these settings, the use of DICOM-compliant imaging is critical for a number of reasons, including HIPAA compliance.

With the implementation of national health care, the growing interest in teledentistry, the continuing pressure for dental compliance with national imaging standards, and the convenience that the technology affords, it is likely that more moderate- to large-size dental facilities will begin to move toward PACS implementation using the DICOM format. Smaller group practices likely will follow their lead.

DICOM Uses and Technical Considerations

Digital imaging systems are being increasingly used in the hospital and academic dental settings,^{[25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]}particularly in the specialties of orthodontics, oral surgery, oral medicine, and implantology.^[32]

Grauer et al^[33]described DICOM as it relates to cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) images in orthodontics, the measurement of CBCT images, the creation of 2-dimensional (2D) radiographs from DICOM CBCT files, segmentation engines and multimodal images, the registration and superimposition of 3-dimensional (3D) images, and special applications for quantitative analysis and 3D surgical prediction. Abramovitch and Rice emphasized the importance of new software programs in the incorporation of CBCT into dental practices.^[34]

CBCT is well known to be useful for volumetric measurement of bone mineral density (BMD), which reflects grayscale values on 3D images. AlQahtani et al conducted a retrospective study to analyze BMD using CBCT and to test the reliability and reproducibility of this imaging modality using a DICOM viewer. The authors reported that conversion or exchange factors for grayscale values to Hounsfield units (HUs) determined at the frontal posterior interdental space area and highly radio-opaque area were reproducible and consistent.^[35]

Most sophisticated software applications allow the transformation of images along different planes. They also allow visualization of a specific region of interest at different angles and the scaling of sections as desired. Typically, there are multiple threshold filters for differentiating tissue density, clipping tools, and transparency filters for soft and hard tissues.

Although rendering images for qualitative assessment is appropriate in 2D imaging, quantitative assessment in 3D rendering has limitations. For example, most landmarks visualized in 2D either cannot be visualized or are difficult to locate on a curved 3D surface. In addition, a rendered image is impacted by many factors, including contrast, movement during acquisition, the presence of metal, signal-to-noise ratio, and the threshold filters that have been applied by the operator. Thus, it is recommended that landmarks need to be located within a stack of slices. With respect to accuracy and reliability of measurements on CBCT images, there may be differences depending on the way landmarks are located within the slices.

Grauer et al^[33] also described the creation of 2D radiographs from DICOM files. Measurements performed on these synthetic cephalograms from CBCT sections are, on average, similar to standard cephalograms. However, there may be an increase in landmark error calculation. Another facet of using multimodal images is in the different segmentation processes. A segmentation engine in the software allows the user to distinguish between the virtual surface and a rendered image. Therefore, the user can export anatomic models and has the option of combining different modalities with the DICOM CBCT images^[36](eg, combining digital models through laser or optical scanners with the CBCT data).

Implant planning may also use DICOM-compliant imaging. In one study, data from a CT scan taken with an intraoral template in place was stored on a CD-ROM in DICOM3 format and then uploaded into an implant software program, where it was then used to calculate parameters necessary for site preparation. The authors noted that this approach can improve surgical accuracy, particularly for regions where exactness is important, such as in cases where anatomic sites have little space (eg, an atrophic maxillae) or where there have been sinus lifts necessitating a zygomatic approach. To establish accuracy during the actual procedure, infrared light-emitting diodes were connected to rotatory instruments and to the patient’s template, then viewed in real time on a monitor. Such computer-assisted navigation systems are in development, but DICOM connectivity issues have yet to be resolved.^[30]

Two other areas of dental application related to DICOM are oral surgery and the diagnosis of dental caries. With respect to oral surgery, DICOM files offer considerable information that is useful in diagnosis and surgical planning. However, some evidence suggests that the complexity of the DICOM file data may be problematic in research. A study exploring CBCT-based DICOM files and the properties of these images used to evaluate maxillofacial bone grafts suggested that DICOM files can be used in research looking at issues associated with graft viability, but that the parameters associated with these files may hinder comparison of results between studies, thus compromising their scientific impact.^{[33, 37]}

Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology in medicine can fabricate 3D models of complex anatomic structures that can be observed both visually and haptically. Patient-specific 3D models fabricated through this process are currently being used for surgical simulation, training, and medical education.^[38]

In the realm of caries diagnosis, one concern with DICOM-compliant digital images is whether they can reliably detect proximal caries when images are viewed on different monitors. Research suggests that the monitor type may not be important. For example, the results of one study evaluating the differences in brightness and contrast adjustment in monitors with different technical standards for the diagnosis of carious lesions suggests that the differences in monitor presentation do not alter a clinician's ability to detect carious lesions, regardless of whether the digital image is presented on a DICOM precalibrated color monitor or a monochromatic monitor.^[39]

Another issue relates to the digital compression of images. It is unclear whether file compression associated with DICOM storage alters the subsequently viewed image in such a way as to hinder diagnosis. At least one study involving assessment of root fracture suggests that it does not. The results of this study failed to show significant differences between uncompressed and compressed images in the detection of root fractures.^{[40, 41]}Other studies also indicate that compression generally does not affect landmark identification of, for example, lateral cephalometric digital radiographs^[42]and reproducible cephalometric point.^[43]

Choi et al compared 3D mirror images of crowns and emergence profiles between symmetric tooth pairs in the anterior maxilla using digital slicewise DICOM segmentation and superimposition of STL data to investigate a state-of the-art algorithm for 3D reconstruction using a pair-matching technique. Study results showed that true-positive rates of emergence profiles were 99%, 100%, and 98%, while false-negative rates were 1%, 0%, and 2% for central incisors, lateral incisors, and canines, respectively, indicating high pair matching accuracy (>99%) and sensitivity (>98%). Researchers concluded that digitally flipped contours of crown and emergence profiles can be successfully transferred for implant reconstruction in the maxillary anterior region to optimize esthetics and function.^[44]

Digital display capabilities of mobile devices has dramatically increased the clinical possibilities associated with internet-based image transfer,^[45] and internet-based electronic dental record delivery is available.^[46]

Security Issues

In the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), the US government has mandates that health care facilities protect patient information and provide it only to professionals. With DICOM images, encryption should generally provide security in the transfer of images across public networks.

However, the implementation of PACS varies with respect to infrastructure. Therefore, there may be inherent weaknesses in the deployment of security standards.^[47]To improve upon the security of PACS and DICOM image transfer, the concept of a digital signature (applied like an invisible watermark on top of the encrypted patient information from the DICOM image header) has been implemented, where a dedicated PACS security server can be used as a gatekeeper, checking and certifying the image origin and integrity of the requesting user.

It should be appreciated that any transfer of non-DICOM images related to patient care via the internet does not conform to HIPAA standards. Such transfer is subject, at least in the United States, to state and federal consequences.

Burgess J. Digital DICOM in Dentistry. Open Dent J. 2015. 9:330-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
DICOM Standards Committee. DICOM Standards Committee (US) Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine PS3.2 2023d: Conformance. Virginia. DICOM. Available at https://dicom.nema.org/medical/dicom/current/output/html/part02.html. 2023; Accessed: September 18, 2023.
DICOM. WG-22. Dentistry. DICOM. Available at https://www.dicomstandard.org/activity/wgs/wg-22. 2023; Accessed: September 18, 2023.
Hellén-Halme K, Nilsson M, Petersson A. Effect of monitors on approximal caries detection in digital radiographs--standard versus precalibrated DICOM part 14 displays: an in vitro study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2009 May. 107(5):716-20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Draenert FG, Erbe C, Zenglein V, Kämmerer PW, Wriedt S, Al Nawas B. 3D analysis of condylar position after sagittal split osteotomy of the mandible in mono- and bimaxillary orthognathic surgery - a methodology study in 18 patients. J Orofac Orthop. 2010 Nov. 71(6):421-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Al-Ubaydi AS, Al-Groosh D. The Validity and Reliability of Automatic Tooth Segmentation Generated Using Artificial Intelligence. ScientificWorldJournal. 2023. 2023:5933003. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lee SC, Hwang HS, Lee KC. Accuracy of deep learning-based integrated tooth models by merging intraoral scans and CBCT scans for 3D evaluation of root position during orthodontic treatment. Prog Orthod. 2022 May 9. 23 (1):15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hwang JJ, Jung YH, Cho BH. The need for DICOM encapsulation of 3D scanning STL data. Imaging Sci Dent. 2018 Dec. 48 (4):301-302. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Juneja M, Thakur N, Kumar D, et al. Accuracy in dental surgical guide fabrication using different 3-D printing techniques. Addit Manuf. 2018. 22:243–255.
Marro A, Bandukwala T, Mak W. Three-Dimensional Printing and Medical Imaging: A Review of the Methods and Applications. Curr Probl Diagn Radiol. 2016 Jan-Feb. 45 (1):2-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
ImageWorks. What is DICOM vs. STL in 3D Dentistry?. ImageWorks. Available at https://imageworkscorporation.com/what-is-dicom-vs-stl-in-3d-dentistry/. 2023; Accessed: September 18, 2023.
Al-Mashhadany SM, Saloom JE, Nahidh M. The Relation among Teeth and Maxillary Dental Arch Dimensions with Anterior Teeth Angulation and Inclination. ScientificWorldJournal. 2021. 2021:8993734. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lee RJ, Pi S, Park J, et al. Three-dimensional evaluation of root position at the reset appointment without radiographs: a proof-of-concept study. Prog Orthod. 2018 Jun 4. 19 (1):15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ferreira JB, Christovam IO, Alencar DS, et al. Accuracy and reproducibility of dental measurements on tomographic digital models: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 2017 Oct. 46 (7):20160455. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Adarsh K, Sharma P, Juneja A. Accuracy and reliability of tooth length measurements on conventional and CBCT images: An in vitro comparative study. J Orthod Sci. 2018. 7:17. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Rasheed TA, Shehab AlHamdany AK, Rauf AM, et al. Comparative reliability assessment of tooth volume measurement with different three-dimensional imaging software. BioMed Research International. 2020. 12.
Willershausen I, Necker F, Kloeckner R, et al. Cinematic rendering to improve visualization of supplementary and ectopic teeth using CT datasets. Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 2023 Apr. 52 (4):20230058. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Alan Forman. The future of x-ray imaging in dentistry. Health Imaging Hub. Available at http://dental.healthimaginghub.com/portals/dental-pacs-news-article/2219-dicom-the-future-of-x-ray-imaging-in-dentistry.html. Accessed: 1/14/12.
DICOM performance statement accessed. Medxchange.com. Available at http://www.medxchange.com/support/dicom-conformance-statement.cfm. Accessed: 1/22/12.
[Guideline] DICOM A Nontechnical Introduction to DICOM: Conformance. Radiology Society of North America (RSNA). Available at http://www.rsna.org/Technology/DICOM/intro/conformance.cfm. Accessed: 1.23.12.
Chopra A, Mhapuskar AA, Marathe S, Nisa SU, Thopte S, Saddiwal R. Evaluation of Osseointegration in Implants using Digital Orthopantomogram and Cone Beam Computed Tomography. J Contemp Dent Pract. 2016 Nov 1. 17 (11):953-957. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Infante L, Yilmaz B, McGlumphy E, Finger I. Fabricating complete dentures with CAD/CAM technology. J Prosthet Dent. 2014 May. 111(5):351-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Schnutenhaus S, Gröller S, Luthardt RG, Rudolph H. Accuracy of the match between cone beam computed tomography and model scan data in template-guided implant planning: A prospective controlled clinical study. Clin Implant Dent Relat Res. 2018 Apr 25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Antunes KT, Cordeiro d'Ornellas M, Noedel DD, Dotto GN, Ghres RA. Three Dimensional Virtual Planning Through Cone Beam Computed Tomography for Surgical Guidance Production. Stud Health Technol Inform. 2017. 245:1250. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Nair MK, Pettigrew JC Jr, Loomis JS, Bates RE, Kostewicz S, Robinson B, et al. Enterprise-wide implementation of digital radiography in oral and maxillofacial imaging: the University of Florida Dentistry System. J Digit Imaging. 2009/06. 22(3:232-41.
Ohtsuka M, Nakamoto T, Konishi M, Yamane Y, Tamura M, Takaba J. [Experience of using a filmless system in dental practice at Hiroshima University Hospital, a former university dental hospital]. Nihon Hoshasen Gijutsu Gakkai Zasshi. 2011. 67(6):673-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Mupparapu M, Binder RE, Cummins JM, Feldman CA, Cappelli MA, Matheson PB. Implementation of a Digital Radiographic Image Acquisition and Retrieval System (DRIARS) using a wireless network in an orthodontic department. J Contemp Dent Pract. 2008. 9(4):115-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chen SK. Integration of the digital imaging and communications in medicine standard into an oral and maxillofacial image management and communication system. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2001 Feb. 91(2):235-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Draenert FG, Erbe C, Zenglein V, Kämmerer PW, Wriedt S, Al Nawas B. 3D analysis of condylar position after sagittal split osteotomy of the mandible in mono- and bimaxillary orthognathic surgery - a methodology study in 18 patients. J Orofac Orthop. 2010 Nov. 71(6):421-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Rubio Serrano M, Albalat Estela S, Peñarrocha Diago M, Peñarrocha Diago M. Software applied to oral implantology: update. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2008/10. 13(10):E661-5).
Nair MK, Pettigrew JC Jr, Loomis JS, Bates RE, Kostewicz S, Robinson B. Enterprise-wide implementation of digital radiography in oral and maxillofacial imaging: the University of Florida Dentistry System. J Digit Imaging. 2009 Jun. 22(3):232-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Joda T, Ferrari M, Braegger U. A digital approach for one-step formation of the supra-implant emergence profile with an individualized CAD/CAM healing abutment. J Prosthodont Res. 2016 Jul. 60 (3):220-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Grauer D, Cevidanes LS, Proffit WR. Working with DICOM craniofacial images. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 2009 Sep. 136(3):460-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Abramovitch K, Rice DD. Basic principles of cone beam computed tomography. Dent Clin North Am. 2014 Jul. 58(3):463-84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
AlQahtani SM. A novel method of assessment of BMD using CBCT for implant placement: a retrospective study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2023 Jul 7. 102 (27):e34203. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Corominas-Delgado C, Espona J, Lorente-Gascón M, Real-Voltas F, Roig M, Costa-Palau S. Digital implant impressions by cone-beam computerized tomography: a pilot study. Clin Oral Implants Res. 2016 Nov. 27 (11):1407-1413. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Spin-Neto R, Marcantonio E Jr, Gotfredsen E, Wenzel A. Exploring CBCT-based DICOM files. A systematic review on the properties of images used to evaluate maxillofacial bone grafts. J Digit Imaging. 2011/12. 24(6:959-66.
Kamio T, Onda T. Fused deposition modeling 3D printing in oral and maxillofacial surgery: problems and solutions. Cureus. 2022 Sep. 14 (9):e28906. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hellén-Halme K, Nilsson M, Petersson A. Effect of monitors on approximal caries detection in digital radiographs--standard versus precalibrated DICOM part 14 displays: an in vitro study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2009 May. 107(5):716-20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Noujeim M, Geha H, Shintaku W, Bechara B, Kashi KA. Effect of JPEG compression on the diagnostic accuracy of periapical images in the detection of root fracture. Dent Traumatol. 2011/11. 1111/j:1600-9657.
Melo SL, Haiter-Neto F, Correa LR, Scarfe WC, Farman AG. Comparative diagnostic yield of cone beam CT reconstruction using various software programs on the detection of vertical root fractures. Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 2013. 42(9):20120459. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Abdelkarim A, Nummikoski P, Gakunga P, Hatch JP, Dove SB. Effect of JPEG2000 compression on landmark identification of lateral cephalometric digital radiographs. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 2010 Oct. 138(4):518-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Duarte H, Vieck R, Siqueira DF, Angelieri F, Bommarito S, Dalben G. Effect of image compression of digital lateral cephalograms on the reproducibility of cephalometric points. Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 2009 Sep. 38(6):393-400. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Choi JW, Choi GJ, Kim YS, et al. A digital workflow for pair matching of maxillary anterior teeth using a 3D segmentation technique for esthetic implant restorations. Sci Rep. 2022 Aug 23. 12 (1):14356. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Andrade R, Wangenheim A, Bortoluzzi MK. Wireless and PDA: a novel strategy to access DICOM-compliant medical data on mobile devices. Int J Med Inform. 2003 Sep. 71(2-3):157-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cardelli P, Turrini R, Bulletti A, Castelli G, Vanini A, Pagnoni A. New online management software and DICOM viewer for dentistry. Int J Comput Dent. 2011. 14(2):147-53. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cao F, Huang HK, Zhou XQ. Medical image security in a HIPAA mandated PACS environment. Comput Med Imaging Graph. 2003. 27(2-3):185-96.
Liu W, Zhu F, Samal A, et al. Suggested mesiodistal distance for multiple implant placement based on the natural tooth crown dimension with digital design. Clin Implant Dent Relat Res. 2022 Dec. 24 (6):801-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Zhang J, Sun J, Stahl JN. PACS and Web-based image distribution and display. Comput Med Imaging Graph. 2003. 27(2-3):197-206. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Raman B, Raman R, Raman L, Beaulieu CF. Radiology on handheld devices: image display, manipulation, and PACS integration issues. Radiographics. 2004 Jan-Feb. 24(1):299-310. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
McEvoy FJ, Svalastoga E. Security of patient and study data associated with DICOM images when transferred using compact disc media. J Digit Imaging. 2009 Mar. 22(1):65-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kallio-Pulkkinen S, Huumonen S, Haapea M, Liukkonen E, Sipola A, Tervonen O, et al. Effect of display type, DICOM calibration and room illuminance in bitewing radiographs. Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 2016. 45 (1):20150129. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].