Mycetoma Differential Diagnoses

1. Reis CMS, Reis-Filho EGM. Mycetomas: an epidemiological, etiological, clinical, laboratory and therapeutic review. An Bras Dermatol. 2018 Jan-Feb. 93 (1):8-18. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

2. Welsh O, Vera-Cabrera L, Salinas-Carmona MC. Mycetoma. Clin Dermatol. 2007 Mar-Apr. 25 (2):195-202. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

3. Mencarini J, Antonelli A, Scoccianti G, Bartolini L, Roselli G, Capanna R, et al. Madura foot in Europe: diagnosis of an autochthonous case by molecular approach and review of the literature. New Microbiol. 2016 Apr. 39 (2):156-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Bonifaz A, Tirado-Sánchez A, Calderón L, Saúl A, Araiza J, Hernández M, et al. Mycetoma: experience of 482 cases in a single center in Mexico. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014 Aug. 8 (8):e3102. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

5. van Belkum A, Fahal A, van de Sande WW. Mycetoma caused by Madurella mycetomatis: a completely neglected medico-social dilemma. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2013. 764:179-89. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

6. Venkatswami S, Sankarasubramanian A, Subramanyam S. The madura foot: looking deep. Int J Low Extrem Wounds. 2012 Mar. 11(1):31-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

7. McNeil MM, Brown JM. The medically important aerobic actinomycetes: epidemiology and microbiology. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1994 Jul. 7 (3):357-417. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

8. Bonifaz A, Tirado-Sánchez A, Calderón L, Saúl A, Araiza J, Hernández M, et al. Mycetoma: experience of 482 cases in a single center in Mexico. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014 Aug. 8(8):e3102. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

9. Giménez-Arufe V, Gutiérrez-Urbón JM, Blanco-Aparicio M, Míguez-Rey E, Martín-Herranz MI. Pulmonary nocardiosis treated with tedizolid. Farm Hosp. 2019 Nov 1. 43 (6):208-210. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. Pinoy E. Actinomycoses et mycetomas. Bull Inst Pasteur. 1913. 11:929-38.

11. Wenger PN, Brown JM, McNeil MM, Jarvis WR. Nocardia farcinica sternotomy site infections in patients following open heart surgery. J Infect Dis. 1998 Nov. 178 (5):1539-43. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

12. Solis-Soto JM, Quintanilla-Rodriguez LE, Meester I, Segoviano-Ramirez JC, Vazquez-Juarez JL, Salinas Carmona MC. In situ detection and distribution of inflammatory cytokines during the course of infection with Nocardia brasiliensis. Histol Histopathol. 2008 May. 23 (5):573-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

13. Salinas-Carmona MC, Welsh O, Casillas SM. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for serological diagnosis of Nocardia brasiliensis and clinical correlation with mycetoma infections. J Clin Microbiol. 1993 Nov. 31 (11):2901-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

14. Salinas-Carmona MC, Pérez-Rivera I. Humoral immunity through immunoglobulin M protects mice from an experimental actinomycetoma infection by Nocardia brasiliensis. Infect Immun. 2004 Oct. 72 (10):5597-604. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

15. Salinas-Carmona MC, Rosas-Taraco AG, Welsh O. Systemic increased immune response to Nocardia brasiliensis co-exists with local immunosuppressive microenvironment. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek. 2012 Oct. 102 (3):473-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

16. Ahmed AO, van Leeuwen W, Fahal A, et al. Mycetoma caused by Madurella mycetomatis: a neglected infectious burden. Lancet Infect Dis. 2004 Sep. 4(9):566-74. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

17. de Hoog GS, Ahmed SA, Najafzadeh MJ, Sutton DA, Keisari MS, Fahal AH, et al. Phylogenetic findings suggest possible new habitat and routes of infection of human eumyctoma. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013 May. 7(5):e2229. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

18. van de Sande WW, Fahal A, Verbrugh H, van Belkum A. Polymorphisms in genes involved in innate immunity predispose toward mycetoma susceptibility. J Immunol. 2007 Sep 1. 179 (5):3065-74. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Kresch-Tronik NS, Carrillo-Casas EM, Arenas R, Atoche C, Del Río-Ávila C, Ochoa-Carrera LA, et al. First case of mycetoma associated with Nocardia takedensis. J Dermatol. 2013 Feb. 40 (2):135-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Kresch-Tronik NS, Carrillo-Casas EM, Arenas R, Atoche C, Ochoa-Carrera LA, Xicohtencatl-Cortes J, et al. Nocardia harenae, an uncommon causative organism of mycetoma: report on two patients. J Med Microbiol. 2012 Aug. 61 (Pt 8):1153-1155. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

21. Siddig EE, Nyuykonge B, Ahmed MT, Hassan R, Saad ESA, Mhmoud NA, et al. Human actinomycetoma caused by Actinomadura mexicana in Sudan: the first report. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2020 Dec 31. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Mhmoud NA, Siddig EE, Nyuykonge B, Bakhiet SM, van de Sande WWJ, Fahal AH. Mycetoma caused by Microascus gracilis: a novel agent of human eumycetoma in Sudan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2021 Jan 30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. Vera-Cabrera L, Cardenas-de la Garza JA, Cuellar-Barboza A, Gallardo-Rocha A, Molina-Torres CA, Escalante-Fuentes W, et al. Case Report: Coral Reef Pathogen Aspergillus sydowii Causing Black Grain Mycetoma: A Review. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2021 Jan 4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

24. Kashima M, Kano R, Mikami Y, Takahama H, Ito M, Hasegawa A, et al. A successfully treated case of mycetoma due to Nocardia veterana. Br J Dermatol. 2005 Jun. 152 (6):1349-52. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Rodríguez-Nava V, Couble A, Molinard C, Sandoval H, Boiron P, Laurent F. Nocardia mexicana sp. nov., a new pathogen isolated from human mycetomas. J Clin Microbiol. 2004 Oct. 42 (10):4530-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

26. van de Sande WW. Global burden of human mycetoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013 Nov. 7(11):e2550. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

27. Bakshi R, Mathur DR. Incidence and changing pattern of mycetoma in western Rajasthan. Indian J Pathol Microbiol. 2008 Jan-Mar. 51(1):154-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Rattanavong S, Vongthongchit S, Bounphamala K, Vongphakdy P, Gubler J, Mayxay M, et al. Actinomycetoma in SE Asia: the first case from Laos and a review of the literature. BMC Infect Dis. 2012 Dec 12. 12:349. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

29. Rouphael NG, Talati NJ, Franco-Paredes C. A painful thorn in the foot: a case of eumycetoma. Am J Med Sci. 2007 Aug. 334(2):142-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

30. Emery D, Denning DW. The global distribution of actinomycetoma and eumycetoma. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2020 Sep. 14 (9):e0008397. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. López Martínez R, Méndez Tovar LJ, Lavalle P, Welsh O, Saúl A, Macotela Ruíz E. [Epidemiology of mycetoma in Mexico: study of 2105 cases]. Gac Med Mex. 1992 Jul-Aug. 128 (4):477-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

32. Zein HA, Fahal AH, Mahgoub el S, El Hassan TA, Abdel-Rahman ME. Predictors of cure, amputation and follow-up dropout among patients with mycetoma seen at the Mycetoma Research Centre, University of Khartoum, Sudan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2012 Nov. 106(11):639-44. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

33. Ahmed AO, Abugroun ES. Unexpected high prevalence of secondary bacterial infection in patients with mycetoma. J Clin Microbiol. 1998 Mar. 36 (3):850-1. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. van de Sande WW, Fahal AH, Goodfellow M, Mahgoub el S, Welsh O, Zijlstra EE. Merits and pitfalls of currently used diagnostic tools in mycetoma. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014 Jul. 8(7):e2918. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

35. Ahmed AA, van de Sande W, Fahal AH. Mycetoma laboratory diagnosis: Review article. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017 Aug. 11 (8):e0005638. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

36. Brown-Elliott BA, Brown JM, Conville PS, Wallace RJ Jr. Clinical and laboratory features of the Nocardia spp. based on current molecular taxonomy. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2006 Apr. 19 (2):259-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

37. Vera-Cabrera L, Salinas-Carmona MC, Welsh O, Rodriguez MA. Isolation and purification of two immunodominant antigens from Nocardia brasiliensis. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 May. 30 (5):1183-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. Desnos-Ollivier M, Bretagne S, Dromer F, Lortholary O, Dannaoui E. Molecular identification of black-grain mycetoma agents. J Clin Microbiol. 2006 Oct. 44 (10):3517-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

39. ELbadawi HS, Mahgoub E, Mahmoud N, Fahal AH. Use of immunoblotting in testing Madurella mycetomatis specific antigen. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2016 May. 110 (5):312-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

40. Vera-Cabrera L, Ortiz-Lopez R, Elizondo-Gonzalez R, Perez-Maya AA, Ocampo-Candiani J. Complete genome sequence of Nocardia brasiliensis HUJEG-1. J Bacteriol. 2012 May. 194 (10):2761-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

41. Vera-Cabrera L, Campos-Rivera MP, Gonzalez-Martinez NA, Ocampo-Candiani J, Cole ST. In vitro activities of the new antitubercular agents PA-824 and BTZ043 against Nocardia brasiliensis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012 Jul. 56 (7):3984-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

42. Espinoza-Gonzalez NA, Welsh O, Ocampo-Candiani J, Said-Fernandez S, Lozano-Garza G, Choi SH, et al. Evaluation of the Combined Therapy of DA-7218, a New Oxazolidinone, and Trimethoprim/ Sulfamethoxazole in the Treatment of Experimental Actinomycetoma by Nocardia brasiliensis. Curr Drug Deliv. 2010 Jul. 7 (3):225-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

43. Smit S, Derks MF, Bervoets S, Fahal A, van Leeuwen W, van Belkum A, et al. Genome Sequence of Madurella mycetomatis mm55, Isolated from a Human Mycetoma Case in Sudan. Genome Announc. 2016 May 26. 4 (3):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

44. Abd El-Bagi ME, Fahal AH. Mycetoma revisited. Incidence of various radiographic signs. Saudi Med J. 2009 Apr. 30(4):529-33. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

45. El Shamy ME, Fahal AH, Shakir MY, Homeida MM. New MRI grading system for the diagnosis and management of mycetoma. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2012 Dec. 106(12):738-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

46. Kumar J, Kumar A, Sethy P, et al. The dot-in-circle sign of mycetoma on MRI. Diagn Interv Radiol. 2007 Dec. 13(4):193-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

47. Jain V, Makwana GE, Bahri N, Mathur MK. The "dot in circle" sign on MRI in maduramycosis: a characteristic finding. J Clin Imaging Sci. 2012. 2:66. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

48. Yousif BM, Fahal AH, Shakir MY. A new technique for the diagnosis of mycetoma using fixed blocks of aspirated material. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2010 Jan. 104(1):6-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

49. Hemalata M, Prasad S, Venkatesh K, Niveditha SR, Kumar SA. Cytological diagnosis of actinomycosis and eumycetoma: a report of two cases. Diagn Cytopathol. 2010 Dec. 38(12):918-20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

50. Chufal SS, Thapliyal NC, Gupta MK. An approach to histology-based diagnosis and treatment of Madura foot. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2012 Sep 17. 6(9):684-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

51. Ahmed AA, van de Sande WW, Fahal A, et al. Management of mycetoma: major challenge in tropical mycoses with limited international recognition. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2007 Apr. 20(2):146-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

52. Falkson C, Sur R, Pacella J. External beam radiotherapy: a treatment option for massive haemoptysis caused by mycetoma. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 2002 Jun. 14(3):233-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

53. Estrada R, Chávez-López G, Estrada-Chávez G, López-Martínez R, Welsh O. Eumycetoma. Clin Dermatol. 2012 Jul. 30(4):389-96. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

54. Nenoff P, van de Sande WW, Fahal AH, Reinel D, Schöfer H. Eumycetoma and actinomycetoma - an update on causative agents, epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnostics and therapy. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2015 Feb 27. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

55. Salkin IF, McGinnis MR, Dykstra MJ, Rinaldi MG. Scedosporium inflatum, an emerging pathogen. J Clin Microbiol. 1988 Mar. 26 (3):498-503. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

56. van Belkum A, Fahal AH, van de Sande WW. In vitro susceptibility of Madurella mycetomatis to posaconazole and terbinafine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011 Apr. 55(4):1771-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

57. van de Sande WW, Fahal AH, Bakker-Woudenberg IA, van Belkum A. Madurella mycetomatis is not susceptible to the echinocandin class of antifungal agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010 Jun. 54(6):2738-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

58. Lacroix C, de Kerviler E, Morel P, Derouin F, Feuilhade de Chavin M. Madurella mycetomatis mycetoma treated successfully with oral voriconazole. Br J Dermatol. 2005 May. 152 (5):1067-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

59. Negroni R, Tobón A, Bustamante B, Shikanai-Yasuda MA, Patino H, Restrepo A. Posaconazole treatment of refractory eumycetoma and chromoblastomycosis. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2005 Nov-Dec. 47 (6):339-46. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

60. N'diaye B, Dieng MT, Perez A, Stockmeyer M, Bakshi R. Clinical efficacy and safety of oral terbinafine in fungal mycetoma. Int J Dermatol. 2006 Feb. 45 (2):154-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

61. Welsh O, Vera-Cabrera L, Welsh E, Salinas MC. Actinomycetoma and advances in its treatment. Clin Dermatol. 2012 Jul. 30(4):372-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

62. Agarwal US, Besarwal RK, Gupta R, Agarwal P. Treatment of actinomycetoma foot - our experience with ten patients. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2012 Nov 26. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

63. Welsh O, Sauceda E, Gonzalez J, Ocampo J. Amikacin alone and in combination with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in the treatment of actinomycotic mycetoma. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1987 Sep. 17 (3):443-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

64. Damle DK, Mahajan PM, Pradhan SN, Belgaumkar VA, Gosavi AP, Tolat SN, et al. Modified Welsh regimen: a promising therapy for actinomycetoma. J Drugs Dermatol. 2008 Sep. 7(9):853-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

65. Viguier M, Lafaurie M. Images in clinical medicine. Actinomycetoma. N Engl J Med. 2015 Jan 15. 372(3):264. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

66. Baril L, Boiron P, Manceron V, et al. Refractory craniofacial actinomycetoma due to Streptomyces somaliensis that required salvage therapy with amikacin and imipenem. Clin Infect Dis. 1999 Aug. 29(2):460-1. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

67. Ramam M, Bhat R, Garg T, et al. A modified two-step treatment for actinomycetoma. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 2007 Jul-Aug. 73(4):235-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

68. Palit A, Ragunatha S, Inamadar AC. Actinomycetoma: dramatic response to modified two-step regimen. Int J Dermatol. 2011 Apr. 50(4):446-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

69. Fuentes A, Arenas R, Reyes M, Fernández RF, Zacarías R. [Actinomycetoma and Nocardia sp. Report of five cases treated with imipenem or imipenem plus amikacin]. Gac Med Mex. 2006 May-Jun. 142 (3):247-52. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

70. Vera-Cabrera L, Daw-Garza A, Said-Fernández S, Lozano-Garza HG, de Torres NW, Rocha NC, et al. Therapeutic effect of a novel oxazolidinone, DA-7867, in BALB/c mice infected with Nocardia brasiliensis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2008 Sep 10. 2 (9):e289. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

71. Chacon-Moreno BE, Welsh O, Cavazos-Rocha N, de la Luz Salazar-Cavazos M, Garza-Lozano HG, Said-Fernandez S, et al. Efficacy of ciprofloxacin and moxifloxacin against Nocardia brasiliensis in vitro and in an experimental model of actinomycetoma in BALB/c mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009 Jan. 53 (1):295-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

72. Welsh O. Mycetoma. Current concepts in treatment. Int J Dermatol. 1991 Jun. 30 (6):387-98. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

73. Zijlstra EE, van de Sande WWJ, Welsh O, Mahgoub ES, Goodfellow M, Fahal AH. Mycetoma: a unique neglected tropical disease. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016 Jan. 16 (1):100-112. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

74. Welsh O, Al-Abdely HM, Salinas-Carmona MC, Fahal AH. Mycetoma medical therapy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014 Oct. 8 (10):e3218. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

75. Maina AM, Macharia JT. Alleviating a Nomad's Anguish: Successful Treatment of a Case of Leg Mycetoma-A Case Report. Case Rep Orthop. 2012. 2012:753174. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

76. Fahal AH. Management of mycetoma. Exp Rev Dermatol. 2010. 5:87-93.

77. Suleiman SH, Wadaella el S, Fahal AH. The Surgical Treatment of Mycetoma. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016 Jun. 10 (6):e0004690. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

78. de Klerk N, de Vogel C, Fahal A, van Belkum A, van de Sande WW. Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase and pyruvate kinase, two novel immunogens in Madurella mycetomatis. Med Mycol. 2011 Jul 5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

Lucio Vera-Cabrera, PhD Laboratorio Interdisciplinario de Investigación Dermatológica, Servicio de Dermatología, Hospital Universitario, UANL, Mexico

Lucio Vera-Cabrera, PhD is a member of the following medical societies: American Society for Microbiology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mario C Salinas-Carmona, MD, PhD Chair, Department of Immunology, Universidad Autónoma De Nuevo León, Mexico

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Michael Stuart Bronze, MD David Ross Boyd Professor and Chairman, Department of Medicine, Stewart G Wolf Endowed Chair in Internal Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Science Center; Master of the American College of Physicians; Fellow, Infectious Diseases Society of America; Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, London

Michael Stuart Bronze, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College of Physicians, American Medical Association, Association of Professors of Medicine, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Oklahoma State Medical Association, Southern Society for Clinical Investigation

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pranatharthi Haran Chandrasekar, MBBS, MD Professor, Chief of Infectious Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine

Pranatharthi Haran Chandrasekar, MBBS, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Society for Microbiology, International Immunocompromised Host Society, Infectious Diseases Society of America

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Raphael J Kiel, MD Associate Professor of Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine; Associate Professor of Medicine, Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine; Consulting Staff, Infectious Diseases Division, William Beaumont Hospital; Consulting Staff, Infectious Diseases Division Providence Hospital

Raphael J Kiel, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine, American Geriatrics Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Oliverio Welsh, MD(DrSc) † Former Chair, Emeritus Professor, Department of Dermatology, Universidad Autónoma De Nuevo León, Mexico

Oliverio Welsh, MD(DrSc) is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology, American Society of Dermatology, Society for Investigative Dermatology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Susan M Swetter, MD Director, Pigmented Lesion and Melanoma Program, Professor, Department of Dermatology, Stanford University Medical Center and Cancer Institute, Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System

Susan M Swetter, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology, Women's Dermatologic Society, American Society of Clinical Oncology, Society for Melanoma Research, Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group, American Medical Association, Pacific Dermatologic Association, Society for Investigative Dermatology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Larry I Lutwick, MD, FACP Editor-in-Chief, ID Cases; Moderator, Program for Monitoring Emerging Diseases; Adjunct Professor of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate College of Medicine

Larry I Lutwick, MD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases, American College of Physicians, American Federation for Clinical Research, American Society for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Infectious Diseases Society of New York, International Society for Infectious Diseases, New York Academy of Sciences, Veterans Affairs Society of Practitioners in Infectious Diseases

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Margarita Asenjo, MD Associate Professor, Department of Radiology, Medical School of the University of Las Palmas De Gran Canaria, Spain

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Basilio J Anía, MD Associate Professor of Infectious Diseases, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria; Consultant in Internal Medicine, Hospital Universitario Dr. Negrín, Spain

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Folusakin O Ayoade, MD Assistant Professor of Clinical Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Miami, Leonard M Miller School of Medicine; Attending Physician in Infectious Diseases, Jackson Health System; Attending Physician in Infectious Diseases, University of Miami Hospital

Folusakin O Ayoade, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Federation for Medical Research, American Medical Association, Infectious Diseases - International Research Initiative, Infectious Diseases Society of America

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mohammad J Alam, MD Assistant Professor of Medicine, Departments of Internal Medicine, Infectious Disease, and Emergency Medicine, University Health, Louisiana State University School of Medicine in Shreveport; Affiliate Staff Physician, Department of Internal Medicine (Infectious Disease), Schumpert Medical Center

Mohammad J Alam, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Medical Association, Society of Critical Care Medicine, Southern Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

• Print this section
• Print the entire contents of
• Print the entire contents of article