Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis) Questions & Answers

1. Chagas C. Coletanea de Trabalhos Cientificos. Brasilia: Editora Universidade de Brasilia; 1981.

2. Kinoshita-Yanaga AT, Toledo MJ, Araújo SM, Vier BP, Gomes ML. Accidental infection by Trypanosoma cruzi follow-up by the polymerase chain reaction: case report. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2009 Sep-Oct. 51 (5):295-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

3. El-Sayed NM, Myler PJ, Bartholomeu DC, et al. The genome sequence of Trypanosoma cruzi, etiologic agent of Chagas disease. Science. 2005 Jul 15. 309(5733):409-15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Diosque P, Tomasini N, Lauthier JJ, Messenger LA, Monje Rumi MM, Ragone PG, et al. Optimized multilocus sequence typing (MLST) scheme for Trypanosoma cruzi. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014 Aug. 8(8):e3117. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

5. Zingales B, Andrade SG, Briones MR, Campbell DA, Chiari E, Fernandes O, et al. A new consensus for Trypanosoma cruzi intraspecific nomenclature: second revision meeting recommends TcI to TcVI. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009 Nov. 104 (7):1051-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

6. Vela A, Coral-Almeida M, Sereno D, Costales JA, Barnabé C, Brenière SF. In vitro susceptibility of Trypanosoma cruzi discrete typing units (DTUs) to benznidazole: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021 Mar. 15 (3):e0009269. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

7. Casares-Marfil D, Kerick M, Andrés-León E, Bosch-Nicolau P, Molina I, Chagas Genetics CYTED Network, et al. GWAS loci associated with Chagas cardiomyopathy influences DNA methylation levels. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021 Oct. 15 (10):e0009874. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

8. Casares-Marfil D, Strauss M, Bosch-Nicolau P, Lo Presti MS, Molina I, Chevillard C, et al. A Genome-Wide Association Study Identifies Novel Susceptibility loci in Chronic Chagas Cardiomyopathy. Clin Infect Dis. 2021 Aug 16. 73 (4):672-679. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

9. Sabino EC, Franco LAM, Venturini G, et al. Genome-wide association study for Chagas Cardiomyopathy identify a new risk locus on chromosome 18 associated with an immune-related protein and transcriptional signature. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2022 Oct. 16 (10):e0010725. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. Gibson W, Stevens J. Genetic exchange in the trypanosomatidae. Adv Parasitol. 1999. 43:1-46. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

11. Messenger LA, Yeo M, Lewis MD, Llewellyn MS, Miles MA. Molecular genotyping of Trypanosoma cruzi for lineage assignment and population genetics. Methods Mol Biol. 2015. 1201:297-337. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

12. Lent H, Wygodzinsky P. Revision of the Triatominae (Hemiptera, Reduviidae), and their significance as vectors of Chagas' disease. Bull Am Museum Natural History. 1979. 163:123-520.

13. Klotz SA, Dorn PL, Mosbacher M, Schmidt JO. Kissing bugs in the United States: risk for vector-borne disease in humans. Environ Health Insights. 2014. 8 (Suppl 2):49-59. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

14. Matos CS, Santos Júnior JE, Medeiros FA, Furtado E, Dias JC. Current situation and perspectives regarding human Chagas disease in midwestern of the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2014 Jun. 109 (3):374-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

15. Lopes Pda S, Ramos EL, Gómez-Hernández C, Ferreira GL, Rezende-Oliveira K. PREVALENCE OF CHAGAS DISEASE AMONG BLOOD DONOR CANDIDATES IN TRIANGULO MINEIRO, MINAS GERAIS STATE, BRAZIL. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2015 Dec. 57 (6):461-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

16. Hashimoto K, Schofield CJ. Elimination of Rhodnius prolixus in Central America. Parasit Vectors. 2012 Feb 22. 5:45. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

17. Cartelle Gestal M, Holban AM, Escalante S, Cevallos M. Epidemiology of Tropical Neglected Diseases in Ecuador in the Last 20 Years. PLoS One. 2015. 10 (9):e0138311. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Gorchakov R, Trosclair LP, Wozniak EJ, Feria PT, Garcia MN, Gunter SM, et al. Trypanosoma cruzi Infection Prevalence and Bloodmeal Analysis in Triatomine Vectors of Chagas Disease From Rural Peridomestic Locations in Texas, 2013-2014. J Med Entomol. 2016 Apr 22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Curtis-Robles R, Lewis BC, Hamer SA. High Trypanosoma cruzi infection prevalence associated with minimal cardiac pathology among wild carnivores in central Texas. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl. 2016 Aug. 5 (2):117-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Orozco MM, Enriquez GF, Cardinal MV, Piccinali RV, Gürtler RE. A comparative study of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in sylvatic mammals from a protected and a disturbed area in the Argentine Chaco. Acta Trop. 2016 Mar. 155:34-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

21. Jaimes-Dueñez J, Jiménez-Leaño ÁP, Esteban-Mendoza M, Moreno-Salcedo LA, Triana-Chávez O, Cantillo-Barraza O. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) from a Chagas Disease-Endemic Urban Area in Colombia. Prev Vet Med. 2020 Sep. 182:105093. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Meyers AC, Edwards EE, Sanders JP, Saunders AB, Hamer SA. Fatal Chagas myocarditis in government working dogs in the southern United States: Cross-reactivity and differential diagnoses in five cases across six months. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports. 2021 Apr. 24:100545. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. Torres-Castro M, Cuevas-Koh N, Hernández-Betancourt S, Noh-Pech H, Estrella E, Herrera-Flores B, et al. Natural infection with Trypanosoma cruzi in bats captured in Campeche and Yucatán, México. Biomedica. 2021 May 31. 41 (Supl. 1):131-140. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

24. Busselman RE, Hamer SA. Chagas Disease Ecology in the United States: Recent Advances in Understanding Trypanosoma cruzi Transmission Among Triatomines, Wildlife, and Domestic Animals and a Quantitative Synthesis of Vector-Host Interactions. Annu Rev Anim Biosci. 2022 Feb 15. 10:325-348. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Barr SC, Van Beek O, Carlisle-Nowak MS, Lopez JW, Kirchhoff LV, Allison N, et al. Trypanosoma cruzi infection in Walker hounds from Virginia. Am J Vet Res. 1995 Aug. 56 (8):1037-44. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

26. Bradley KK, Bergman DK, Woods JP, et al. Prevalence of American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease) among dogs in Oklahoma. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2000 Dec 15. 217(12):1853-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

27. Tenney TD, Curtis-Robles R, Snowden KF, Hamer SA. Shelter dogs as sentinels for Trypanosoma cruzi transmission across Texas. Emerg Infect Dis. 2014 Aug. 20(8):1323-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

28. Cohen JE, Gürtler RE. Modeling household transmission of American trypanosomiasis. Science. 2001 Jul 27. 293(5530):694-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. Sánchez-González G, Figueroa-Lara A, Elizondo-Cano M, Wilson L, Novelo-Garza B, Valiente-Banuet L, et al. Cost-Effectiveness of Blood Donation Screening for Trypanosoma cruzi in Mexico. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016 Mar. 10 (3):e0004528. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

30. Souza FF, Castro-E-Silva O, Marin Neto JA, Sankarankutty AK, Teixeira AC, Martinelli AL, et al. Acute chagasic myocardiopathy after orthotopic liver transplantation with donor and recipient serologically negative for Trypanosoma cruzi: a case report. Transplant Proc. 2008 Apr. 40 (3):875-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Chagas disease after organ transplantation--United States, 2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002 Mar 15. 51(10):210-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

32. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Chagas disease after organ transplantation--Los Angeles, California, 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006 Jul 28. 55(29):798-800. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

33. Chin-Hong PV, Schwartz BS, Bern C, Montgomery SP, Kontak S, Kubak B, et al. Screening and treatment of chagas disease in organ transplant recipients in the United States: recommendations from the chagas in transplant working group. Am J Transplant. 2011 Apr. 11 (4):672-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. Corey AB, Sonetti D, Maloney JD, Montgomery SP, Rademacher BL, Taylor LJ, et al. Transmission of Donor-Derived Trypanosoma cruzi and Subsequent Development of Chagas Disease in a Lung Transplant Recipient. Case Rep Infect Dis. 2017. 2017:5381072. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

35. Howard EJ, Xiong X, Carlier Y, Sosa-Estani S, Buekens P. Frequency of the congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BJOG. 2014 Jan. 121 (1):22-33. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

36. Schijman AG, Altcheh J, Burgos JM, et al. Aetiological treatment of congenital Chagas' disease diagnosed and monitored by the polymerase chain reaction. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2003 Sep. 52(3):441-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

37. Jackson Y, Myers C, Diana A, Marti HP, Wolff H, Chappuis F, et al. Congenital transmission of Chagas disease in Latin American immigrants in Switzerland. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009 Apr. 15(4):601-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

38. Bern C, Verastegui M, Gilman RH, Lafuente C, Galdos-Cardenas G, Calderon M, et al. Congenital Trypanosoma cruzi transmission in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Clin Infect Dis. 2009 Dec 1. 49(11):1667-74. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

39. Soriano-Arandes A, Angheben A, Serre-Delcor N, Treviño-Maruri B, Gómez I Prat J, Jackson Y. Control and management of congenital Chagas disease in Europe and other non-endemic countries: current policies and practices. Trop Med Int Health. 2016 May. 21 (5):590-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

40. Alarcón A, Morgan M, Montgomery SP, Scavo L, Wong EC, Hahn A, et al. Diagnosis and Treatment of Congenital Chagas Disease in a Premature Infant. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2016 Dec. 5 (4):e28-e31. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

41. Norman FF, López-Vélez R. Chagas disease and breast-feeding. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013 Oct. 19 (10):1561-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

42. Xavier SC, Roque AL, Bilac D, de Araújo VA, Neto SF, Lorosa ES, et al. Distantiae transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi: a new epidemiological feature of acute Chagas disease in Brazil. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014 May. 8(5):e2878. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

43. Villamil-Gómez WE, Echeverría LE, Ayala MS, Muñoz L, Mejía L, Eyes-Escalante M, et al. Orally transmitted acute Chagas disease in domestic travelers in Colombia. J Infect Public Health. 2016 May 30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

44. Robertson LJ, Devleesschauwer B, Alarcón de Noya B, Noya González O, Torgerson PR. Trypanosoma cruzi: Time for International Recognition as a Foodborne Parasite. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016 Jun. 10 (6):e0004656. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

45. Herwaldt BL. Laboratory-acquired parasitic infections from accidental exposures. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2001 Oct. 14 (4):659-88, table of contents. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

46. Bern C, Martin DL, Gilman RH. Acute and congenital Chagas disease. Adv Parasitol. 2011. 75:19-47. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

47. Ochs DE, Hnilica VS, Moser DR, et al. Postmortem diagnosis of autochthonous acute chagasic myocarditis by polymerase chain reaction amplification of a species-specific DNA sequence of Trypanosoma cruzi. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1996 May. 54(5):526-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

48. Parada H, Carrasco HA, Anez N, et al. Cardiac involvement is a constant finding in acute Chagas' disease: a clinical, parasitological and histopathological study. Int J Cardiol. 1997 Jun 27. 60(1):49-54. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

49. Hoff R, Teixeira RS, Carvalho JS, et al. Trypanosoma cruzi in the cerebrospinal fluid during the acute stage of Chagas' disease. N Engl J Med. 1978 Mar 16. 298(11):604-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

50. Marin-Neto JA, Cunha-Neto E, Maciel BC, Simões MV. Pathogenesis of chronic Chagas heart disease. Circulation. 2007 Mar 6. 115(9):1109-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

51. Rassi A Jr, Rassi A, Marin-Neto JA. Chagas disease. Lancet. 2010 Apr 17. 375(9723):1388-402. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

52. Hidron A, Vogenthaler N, Santos-Preciado JI, Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Franco-Paredes C, Rassi A Jr. Cardiac involvement with parasitic infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010 Apr. 23 (2):324-49. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

53. Tanowitz HB, Machado FS, Spray DC, Friedman JM, Weiss OS, Lora JN, et al. Developments in the management of Chagas cardiomyopathy. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2015 Dec. 13 (12):1393-409. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

54. Zhang L, Tarleton RL. Parasite persistence correlates with disease severity and localization in chronic Chagas' disease. J Infect Dis. 1999 Aug. 180(2):480-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

55. Benvenuti LA, Roggério A, Freitas HF, Mansur AJ, Fiorelli A, Higuchi ML. Chronic American trypanosomiasis: parasite persistence in endomyocardial biopsies is associated with high-grade myocarditis. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2008 Sep. 102 (6):481-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

56. Andrade ZA, Andrade SG, Oliveira GB, et al. Histopathology of the conducting tissue of the heart in Chagas' myocarditis. Am Heart J. 1978 Mar. 95(3):316-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

57. Isselbacher EM, Kligerman SJ, Lam KM, Hurtado RM. Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Case 2-2010. A 47-year-old man with abdominal and flank pain. N Engl J Med. 2010 Jan 21. 362 (3):254-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

58. Remes-Troche JM, Torres-Aguilera M, Antonio-Cruz KA, Vazquez-Jimenez G, De-La-Cruz-Patiño E. Esophageal motor disorders in subjects with incidentally discovered Chagas disease: a study using high-resolution manometry and the Chicago classification. Dis Esophagus. 2014 Aug. 27 (6):524-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

59. Lara Romero C, Ferreiro Argüelles B, Romero Pérez E. Acute colonic complications in a patient with Chagas disease. Rev Esp Enferm Dig. 2016 Apr 29. 108:[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

60. Bey E, Paucara Condori MB, Gaget O, Solano P, Revollo S, Saussine C, et al. Lower urinary tract dysfunction in chronic Chagas disease: clinical and urodynamic presentation. World J Urol. 2019 Jul. 37 (7):1395-1402. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

61. Añez N, Carrasco H, Parada H, et al. Myocardial parasite persistence in chronic chagasic patients. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1999 May. 60(5):726-32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

62. Dorn PL, Perniciaro L, Yabsley MJ, et al. Autochthonous transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi, Louisiana. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007 Apr. 13(4):605-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

63. Turabelidze G, Vasudevan A, Rojas-Moreno C, Montgomery SP, Baker M, Pratt D, et al. Autochthonous Chagas Disease - Missouri, 2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020 Feb 21. 69 (7):193-195. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

64. Lynn MK, Dye-Braumuller KC, Beatty NL, Dorn PL, Klotz SA, Stramer SL, et al. Evidence of likely autochthonous Chagas disease in the southwestern United States: A case series of Trypanosoma cruzi seropositive blood donors. Transfusion. 2022 Sep. 62 (9):1808-1817. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

65. Bern C, Messenger LA, Whitman JD, Maguire JH. Chagas Disease in the United States: a Public Health Approach. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2019 Dec 18. 33 (1):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

66. Eggers P, Offutt-Powell TN, Lopez K, Montgomery SP, Lawrence GG. Notes from the Field: Identification of a Triatoma sanguisuga "Kissing Bug" - Delaware, 2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019 Apr 19. 68 (15):359. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

67. Feit N. Deadly kissing bugs, already reported in the Carolinas, have spread north, CDC says. The News & Observer. Available at https://www.newsobserver.com/news/state/south-carolina/article229655714.html. April 25, 2019; Accessed: June 23, 2023.

68. Irish A, Whitman JD, Clark EH, Marcus R, Bern C. Updated Estimates and Mapping for Prevalence of Chagas Disease among Adults, United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 2022 Jul. 28 (7):1313-1320. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

69. Hochberg NS, Montgomery SP. Chagas Disease. Ann Intern Med. 2023 Feb. 176 (2):ITC17-ITC32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

70. Kirchhoff LV, Paredes P, Lomelí-Guerrero A, et al. Transfusion-associated Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis) in Mexico: implications for transfusion medicine in the United States. Transfusion. 2006 Feb. 46(2):298-304. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

71. Carabarin-Lima A, González-Vázquez MC, Rodríguez-Morales O, Baylón-Pacheco L, Rosales-Encina JL, Reyes-López PA, et al. Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis) in Mexico: an update. Acta Trop. 2013 Aug. 127(2):126-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

72. Beatty NL, Alcala RF, Luque NA, Radetic M, Joshi-Guske P, Alakrad E, et al. Case Report: Chagas Disease in a Traveler Who Developed Esophageal Involvement Decades after Acute Infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2023 Mar 1. 108 (3):543-547. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

73. Bern C, Montgomery SP, Katz L, Caglioti S, Stramer SL. Chagas disease and the US blood supply. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008 Oct. 21(5):476-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

74. Young C, Losikoff P, Chawla A, et al. Transfusion-acquired Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Transfusion. 2007 Mar. 47(3):540-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

75. Kessler DA, Shi PA, Avecilla ST, Shaz BH. Results of lookback for Chagas disease since the inception of donor screening at New York Blood Center. Transfusion. 2013 May. 53(5):1083-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

76. Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), Whole Cell Lysate Antigen, ORTHO® T. cruzi ELISA Test System (Package insert). Ortho-Clinical Diagnostics, Inc. 2006.

77. Tobler LH, Contestable P, Pitina L, et al. Evaluation of a new enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Chagas antibody in US blood donors. Transfusion. 2007 Jan. 47(1):90-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

78. Chang CD, Cheng KY, Jiang LX, Salbilla VA, Haller AS, Yem AW, et al. Evaluation of a prototype Trypanosoma cruzi antibody assay with recombinant antigens on a fully automated chemiluminescence analyzer for blood donor screening. Transfusion. 2006 Oct. 46(10):1737-44. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

79. Cheng KY, Chang CD, Salbilla VA, Kirchhoff LV, Leiby DA, Schochetman G, et al. Immunoblot assay using recombinant antigens as a supplemental test to confirm the presence of antibodies to Trypanosoma cruzi. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2007 Apr. 14(4):355-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

80. Shah DO, Chang CD, Cheng KY, Salbilla VA, Adya N, Marchlewicz BA, et al. Comparison of the analytic sensitivities of a recombinant immunoblot assay and the radioimmune precipitation assay for the detection of antibodies to Trypanosoma cruzi in patients with Chagas disease. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2010 Aug. 67(4):402-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

81. Kirchhoff LV, Gam AA, Gusmao RA, et al. Increased specificity of serodiagnosis of Chagas' disease by detection of antibody to the 72- and 90-kilodalton glycoproteins of Trypanosoma cruzi. J Infect Dis. 1987 Mar. 155(3):561-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

82. Otani MM, Vinelli E, Kirchhoff LV, del Pozo A, Sands A, Vercauteren G, et al. WHO comparative evaluation of serologic assays for Chagas disease. Transfusion. 2009 Jun. 49(6):1076-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

83. Custer B, Agapova M, Bruhn R, Cusick R, Kamel H, Tomasulo P, et al. Epidemiologic and laboratory findings from 3 years of testing United States blood donors for Trypanosoma cruzi. Transfusion. 2012 Sep. 52 (9):1901-11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

84. Requena-Méndez A, Aldasoro E, de Lazzari E, Sicuri E, Brown M, Moore DA, et al. Prevalence of Chagas disease in Latin-American migrants living in Europe: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015 Feb. 9 (2):e0003540. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

85. Roca Saumell C, Soriano-Arandes A, Solsona Díaz L, Gascón Brustenga J, Grupo de consenso Chagas-APS. [Consensus document for the detection and management of Chagas disease in primary health care in a non-endemic areas]. Aten Primaria. 2015 May. 47 (5):308-17. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

86. Irish A, Whitman JD, Clark EH, Marcus R, Bern C. Updated Estimates and Mapping for Prevalence of Chagas Disease among Adults, United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 2022 Jul. 28 (7):1313-1320. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

87. Hochberg NS, Montgomery SP. Chagas Disease. Ann Intern Med. 2023 Feb. 176 (2):ITC17-ITC32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

88. Gómez-Ochoa SA, Rojas LZ, Echeverría LE, Muka T, Franco OH. Global, Regional, and National Trends of Chagas Disease from 1990 to 2019: Comprehensive Analysis of the Global Burden of Disease Study. Glob Heart. 2022. 17 (1):59. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

89. Abras A, Ballart C, Fernández-Arévalo A, Pinazo MJ, Gascón J, Muñoz C, et al. Worldwide Control and Management of Chagas Disease in a New Era of Globalization: a Close Look at Congenital Trypanosoma cruzi Infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2022 Apr 20. 35 (2):e0015221. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

90. Forsyth CJ, Manne-Goehler J, Bern C, Whitman J, Hochberg NS, Edwards M, et al. Recommendations for Screening and Diagnosis of Chagas Disease in the United States. J Infect Dis. 2022 May 4. 225 (9):1601-1610. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

91. Salvatella R. Estimación cuantitativa de la enfermedad de Chagas en las Américas. Washington, D.C.: Pan American Health Association; 2006.

92. Segura EL, Cura EN, Estani SA, et al. Long-term effects of a nationwide control program on the seropositivity for Trypanosoma cruzi infection in young men from Argentina. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2000 Mar. 62(3):353-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

93. Sabino EC, Goncalez TT, Salles NA, et al. Trends in the prevalence of Chagas' disease among first-time blood donors in São Paulo, Brazil. Transfusion. 2003 Jul. 43(7):853-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

94. Dias JC. Elimination of Chagas disease transmission: perspectives. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009 Jul. 104 Suppl 1:41-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

95. Shikanai Yasuda MA. Emerging and reemerging forms of Trypanosoma cruzi transmission. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2022. 117:e210033. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

96. NORMA Oficial Mexicana NOM-253-SSA1-2012, Para la disposición de sangre humana y sus componentes con fines terapéuticos. Diario Oficial de la Federación. Available at http://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=5275587&fecha=26/10/2012. October 26, 2012; Accessed: June 23, 2023.

97. Cunha-Neto E, Chevillard C. Chagas disease cardiomyopathy: immunopathology and genetics. Mediators Inflamm. 2014. 2014:683230. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

98. Nogueira LG, Santos RH, Fiorelli AI, Mairena EC, Benvenuti LA, Bocchi EA, et al. Myocardial gene expression of T-bet, GATA-3, Ror-?t, FoxP3, and hallmark cytokines in chronic Chagas disease cardiomyopathy: an essentially unopposed TH1-type response. Mediators Inflamm. 2014. 2014:914326. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

99. Zingales B, Andrade SG, Briones MR, Campbell DA, Chiari E, Fernandes O, et al. A new consensus for Trypanosoma cruzi intraspecific nomenclature: second revision meeting recommends TcI to TcVI. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009 Nov. 104 (7):1051-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

100. Vela A, Coral-Almeida M, Sereno D, Costales JA, Barnabé C, Brenière SF. In vitro susceptibility of Trypanosoma cruzi discrete typing units (DTUs) to benznidazole: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021 Mar. 15 (3):e0009269. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

101. Casares-Marfil D, Kerick M, Andrés-León E, Bosch-Nicolau P, Molina I, Chagas Genetics CYTED Network, et al. GWAS loci associated with Chagas cardiomyopathy influences DNA methylation levels. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021 Oct. 15 (10):e0009874. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

102. Casares-Marfil D, Strauss M, Bosch-Nicolau P, Lo Presti MS, Molina I, Chevillard C, et al. A Genome-Wide Association Study Identifies Novel Susceptibility loci in Chronic Chagas Cardiomyopathy. Clin Infect Dis. 2021 Aug 16. 73 (4):672-679. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

103. Sabino EC, Franco LAM, Venturini G, et al. Genome-wide association study for Chagas Cardiomyopathy identify a new risk locus on chromosome 18 associated with an immune-related protein and transcriptional signature. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2022 Oct. 16 (10):e0010725. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

104. Souza RCM, Gorla DE, Chame M, Jaramillo N, Monroy C, Diotaiuti L. Chagas disease in the context of the 2030 agenda: global warming and vectors. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2022. 117:e200479. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

105. Beaumier CM, Gillespie PM, Strych U, Hayward T, Hotez PJ, Bottazzi ME. Status of vaccine research and development of vaccines for Chagas disease. Vaccine. 2016 Jun 3. 34 (26):2996-3000. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

106. Rassi A Jr, Rassi A, Rassi SG. Predictors of mortality in chronic Chagas disease: a systematic review of observational studies. Circulation. 2007 Mar 6. 115 (9):1101-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

107. Pereira FT, Rocha EA, Monteiro MP, Lima NA, Rodrigues CR Sobrinho, Pires RD Neto. Clinical Course After Cardioverter-Defibrillator Implantation: Chagasic Versus Ischemic Patients. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2016 Jul 11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

108. Kirchhoff LV. Trypanosomiasis. Scheld WM, Whiteley RJ, Marra CM, eds. Infections of the Central Nervous System. 4 ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Heath; 2014. 756-69.

109. Suasnábar S, Olivera LV, Arias E, et al. Trypanocidal therapy among children infected by Trypanosoma cruzi. Serological and electrocardiographic changes over a mean twenty-five-years follow-up period. Acta Trop. 2021 Oct. 222:106050. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

110. Guadalupe VD, Martha BT, Margarita CB, Elia TG, Adelina SM, Adrián PV, et al. Chagas' disease among school students from Chiapas, Mexico: Two cases of Chagasic cardiomyopathy. J Vector Borne Dis. 2021 Apr-Jun. 58 (2):148-153. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

111. DIAS E, LARANJA FS, MIRANDA A, NOBREGA G. Chagas' disease; a clinical, epidemiologic, and pathologic study. Circulation. 1956 Dec. 14 (6):1035-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

112. Medeiros MB, Guerra JA, Lacerda MV. Meningoencephalitis in a patient with acute Chagas disease in the Brazilian Amazon. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2008 Sep-Oct. 41 (5):520-1. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

113. Mott KE, França JT, Barrett TV, Hoff R, de Oliveira TS, Sherlock IA. Cutaneous allergic reactions to Triatoma infestans after xenodiagnosis. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 1980 Jul-Dec. 75(3-4):3-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

114. Klotz JH, Dorn PL, Logan JL, Stevens L, Pinnas JL, Schmidt JO, et al. "Kissing bugs": potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis. Clin Infect Dis. 2010 Jun 15. 50(12):1629-34. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

115. Klotz SA, Shirazi FM, Boesen K, Beatty NL, Dorn PL, Smith S, et al. Kissing Bug (Triatoma spp.) Intrusion into Homes: Troublesome Bites and Domiciliation. Environ Health Insights. 2016. 10:45-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

116. Behrens-Bradley N, Smith S, Beatty NL, Love M, Ahmad N, Dorn PL, et al. Kissing Bugs Harboring Trypanosoma cruzi, Frequently Bite Residents of the US Southwest But Do Not Cause Chagas Disease. Am J Med. 2020 Jan. 133 (1):108-114.e13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

117. Beatty NL, White ZS, Bhosale CR, Wilson K, Cannella AP, Stenn T, et al. Anaphylactic Reactions Due to Triatoma protracta (Hemiptera, Reduviidae, Triatominae) and Invasion into a Home in Northern California, USA. Insects. 2021 Nov 12. 12 (11):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

118. Rassi A Jr, Rassi A, Little WC, Xavier SS, Rassi SG, Rassi AG, et al. Development and validation of a risk score for predicting death in Chagas' heart disease. N Engl J Med. 2006 Aug 24. 355 (8):799-808. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

119. Rassi A Jr, Rassi A, Marin-Neto JA. Chagas disease. Lancet. 2010 Apr 17. 375 (9723):1388-402. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

120. Echeverría LE, Rojas LZ, Gómez-Ochoa SA, Rueda-Ochoa OL, Sosa-Vesga CD, Muka T, et al. Cardiovascular biomarkers as predictors of adverse outcomes in chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy. PLoS One. 2021. 16 (10):e0258622. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

121. Cerqueira-Silva T, Gonçalves BM, Pereira CB, Porto LM, Marques ME, Santos LS, et al. Chagas disease is an independent predictor of stroke and death in a cohort of heart failure patients. Int J Stroke. 2022 Feb. 17 (2):180-188. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

122. Lage TAR, Tupinambás JT, Pádua LB, Ferreira MO, Ferreira AC, Teixeira AL, et al. Stroke in Chagas disease: from pathophysiology to clinical practice. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2022. 55:e0575. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

123. Jorg ME, Freire RS, Orlando AS, et al. Disfunción cerebral mínima como secuela de meningoencefalitis aguda por Trypanosoma cruzi. Prensa Med Argentina. 1972. 59:1658-69.

124. Jackson Y, Dang T, Schnetzler B, Pascual M, Meylan P. Trypanosoma cruzi fatal reactivation in a heart transplant recipient in Switzerland. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2011 Apr. 30 (4):484-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

125. Bern C. Chagas disease in the immunosuppressed host. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2012 Aug. 25(4):450-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

126. Pinazo MJ, Espinosa G, Cortes-Lletget C, Posada Ede J, Aldasoro E, Oliveira I, et al. Immunosuppression and Chagas disease: a management challenge. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013. 7(1):e1965. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

127. Guiang KM, Cantey P, Montgomery SP, Ailawadhi S, Qvarnstrom Y, Price T, et al. Reactivation of Chagas disease in a bone marrow transplant patient: case report and review of screening and management. Transpl Infect Dis. 2013 Dec. 15(6):E264-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

128. Cicora F, Escurra V, Bibolini J, Petroni J, González I, Roberti J. Cerebral trypanosomiasis in a renal transplant recipient. Transpl Infect Dis. 2014 Oct. 16 (5):813-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

129. Gómez-P CF, Mantilla-H JC, Rodriguez-Morales AJ. Fatal chagas disease among solid-organ transplant recipients in Colombia. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2014 Mar. 1 (1):ofu032. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

130. Hernández C, Cucunubá Z, Parra E, Toro G, Zambrano P, Ramírez JD. Chagas disease (Trypanosoma cruzi) and HIV co-infection in Colombia. Int J Infect Dis. 2014 Sep. 26:146-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

131. Rodriguez-Guardado A, González ML, Rodriguez M, Flores-Chavez M, Boga JA, Gascon J. Trypanosoma cruzi infection in a Spanish liver transplant recipient. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2015 Jul. 21 (7):687.e1-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

132. Buccheri R, Kassab MJ, Freitas VL, Silva SC, Bezerra RC, Khoury Z, et al. CHAGASIC MENINGOENCEPHALITIS IN AN HIV INFECTED PATIENT WITH MODERATE IMMUNOSUPPRESSION: PROLONGED SURVIVAL AND CHALLENGES IN THE HAART ERA. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2015 Dec. 57 (6):531-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

133. Rojas JD, Pereira M, Martínez B, Gómez JC, Cuervo SI. Chagas disease reactivation after autologous stem cell transplant. Case report and literature review. Biomedica. 2022 Jun 1. 42 (2):224-233. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

134. Radisic MV, Repetto SA. American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease) in solid organ transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis. 2020 Dec. 22 (6):e13429. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

135. Vela A, Coral-Almeida M, Sereno D, Costales JA, Barnabé C, Brenière SF. In vitro susceptibility of Trypanosoma cruzi discrete typing units (DTUs) to benznidazole: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021 Mar. 15 (3):e0009269. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

136. Casares-Marfil D, Kerick M, Andrés-León E, Bosch-Nicolau P, Molina I, Chagas Genetics CYTED Network, et al. GWAS loci associated with Chagas cardiomyopathy influences DNA methylation levels. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021 Oct. 15 (10):e0009874. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

137. Casares-Marfil D, Strauss M, Bosch-Nicolau P, Lo Presti MS, Molina I, Chevillard C, et al. A Genome-Wide Association Study Identifies Novel Susceptibility loci in Chronic Chagas Cardiomyopathy. Clin Infect Dis. 2021 Aug 16. 73 (4):672-679. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

138. Sabino EC, Franco LAM, Venturini G, et al. Genome-wide association study for Chagas Cardiomyopathy identify a new risk locus on chromosome 18 associated with an immune-related protein and transcriptional signature. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2022 Oct. 16 (10):e0010725. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

139. Kirchhoff LV, Votava JR, Ochs DE, et al. Comparison of PCR and microscopic methods for detecting Trypanosoma cruzi. J Clin Microbiol. 1996 May. 34(5):1171-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

140. Freilij H, Altcheh J. Congenital Chagas' disease: diagnostic and clinical aspects. Clin Infect Dis. 1995 Sep. 21(3):551-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

141. Sánchez-Camargo CL, Albajar-Viñas P, Wilkins PP, Nieto J, Leiby DA, Paris L, et al. Comparative evaluation of 11 commercialized rapid diagnostic tests for detecting Trypanosoma cruzi antibodies in serum banks in areas of endemicity and nonendemicity. J Clin Microbiol. 2014 Jul. 52 (7):2506-12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

142. Kelly EA, Bulman CA, Gunderson EL, Irish AM, Townsend RL, Sakanari JA, et al. Comparative Performance of Latest-Generation and FDA-Cleared Serology Tests for the Diagnosis of Chagas Disease. J Clin Microbiol. 2021 May 19. 59 (6):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

143. Shah DO, Chang CD, Cheng KY, Salbilla VA, Adya N, Marchlewicz BA, et al. Comparison of the analytic sensitivities of a recombinant immunoblot assay and the radioimmune precipitation assay for the detection of antibodies to Trypanosoma cruzi in patients with Chagas disease. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2010 Aug. 67 (4):402-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

144. Virreira M, Torrico F, Truyens C, et al. Comparison of polymerase chain reaction methods for reliable and easy detection of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003 May. 68(5):574-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

145. Sabino EC, Lee TH, Montalvo L, Nguyen ML, Leiby DA, Carrick DM, et al. Antibody levels correlate with detection of Trypanosoma cruzi DNA by sensitive polymerase chain reaction assays in seropositive blood donors and possible resolution of infection over time. Transfusion. 2013 Jun. 53(6):1257-65. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

146. Moser DR, Kirchhoff LV, Donelson JE. Detection of Trypanosoma cruzi by DNA amplification using the polymerase chain reaction. J Clin Microbiol. 1989 Jul. 27(7):1477-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

147. Sturm NR, Degrave W, Morel C, et al. Sensitive detection and schizodeme classification of Trypanosoma cruzi cells by amplification of kinetoplast minicircle DNA sequences: use in diagnosis of Chagas' disease. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 1989 Mar 15. 33(3):205-14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

148. Schijman AG, Bisio M, Orellana L, Sued M, Duffy T, Mejia Jaramillo AM, et al. International study to evaluate PCR methods for detection of Trypanosoma cruzi DNA in blood samples from Chagas disease patients. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011 Jan 11. 5(1):e931. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

149. Ramírez JC, Cura CI, da Cruz Moreira O, et al. Analytical Validation of Quantitative Real-Time PCR Methods for Quantification of Trypanosoma cruzi DNA in Blood Samples from Chagas Disease Patients. J Mol Diagn. 2015 Sep. 17 (5):605-15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

150. Schijman AG, Bisio M, Orellana L, et al. International study to evaluate PCR methods for detection of Trypanosoma cruzi DNA in blood samples from Chagas disease patients. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011 Jan 11. 5 (1):e931. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

151. Russomando G, de Tomassone MM, de Guillen I, Acosta N, Vera N, Almiron M, et al. Treatment of congenital Chagas' disease diagnosed and followed up by the polymerase chain reaction. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998 Sep. 59(3):487-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

152. Mora MC, Sanchez Negrette O, Marco D, et al. Early diagnosis of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection using PCR, hemoculture, and capillary concentration, as compared with delayed serology. J Parasitol. 2005 Dec. 91(6):1468-73. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

153. Diez CN, Manattini S, Zanuttini JC, et al. The value of molecular studies for the diagnosis of congenital Chagas disease in northeastern Argentina. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2008 Apr. 78(4):624-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

154. Velázquez EB, Rivero R, De Rissio AM, Malagrino N, Esteva MI, Riarte AR, et al. Predictive role of polymerase chain reaction in the early diagnosis of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Acta Trop. 2014 Sep. 137:195-200. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

155. Shikanai-Yasuda MA, Ochs DE, Tolezano JE, et al. Use of the polymerase chain reaction for detecting Trypanosoma cruzi in triatomine vectors. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1996 Nov-Dec. 90(6):649-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

156. Saavedra M, Zulantay I, Apt W, Castillo J, Araya E, Martínez G, et al. Quantification by real-time PCR of Trypanosoma cruzi DNA in samples of Triatoma infestans used in xenodiagnosis of chronic Chagas disease patients. Parasit Vectors. 2016 Jul 4. 9 (1):382. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

157. Ferreira RT, Melandre AM, Cabral ML, Branquinho MR, Cardarelli-Leite P. Extraction of Trypanosoma cruzi DNA from food: a contribution to the elucidation of acute Chagas disease outbreaks. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2016 Apr. 49 (2):190-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

158. Benznidazole [package insert]. Florham Park, NJ: Exeltis USA, Inc. August, 2017. Available at [Full Text].

159. Lascano F, García Bournissen F, Altcheh J. Review of pharmacological options for the treatment of Chagas disease. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2022 Feb. 88 (2):383-402. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

160. Altcheh J, Castro L, Dib JC, and the, CHICO Study Group. Prospective, historically controlled study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a new paediatric formulation of nifurtimox in children aged 0 to 17 years with Chagas disease one year after treatment (CHICO). PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021 Jan. 15 (1):e0008912. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

161. Torrico F, Gascón J, Barreira F, Blum B, Almeida IC, Alonso-Vega C, et al. New regimens of benznidazole monotherapy and in combination with fosravuconazole for treatment of Chagas disease (BENDITA): a phase 2, double-blind, randomised trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2021 Aug. 21 (8):1129-1140. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

162. Morillo CA, Echeverria LE. New treatment regimens for Chagas disease: light at the end of the tunnel?. Lancet Infect Dis. 2021 Aug. 21 (8):1057-1058. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

163. Mazzeti AL, Capelari-Oliveira P, Bahia MT, Mosqueira VCF. Review on Experimental Treatment Strategies Against Trypanosoma cruzi. J Exp Pharmacol. 2021. 13:409-432. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

164. Benvenuti LA, Freitas VLT, Roggério A, Nishiya AS, Mangini S, Strabelli TMV. Usefulness of PCR for Trypanosoma cruzi DNA in blood and endomyocardial biopsies for detection of Chagas disease reactivation after heart transplantation: A comparative study. Transpl Infect Dis. 2021 Aug. 23 (4):e13567. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

165. Altcheh J, Biancardi M, Lapena A, et al. [Congenital Chagas disease: experience in the Hospital de Niños, Ricardo Gutiérrez, Buenos Aires, Argentina]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2005. 38 Suppl 2:41-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

166. Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007 Nov 14. 298(18):2171-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

167. Sosa-Estani S, Segura EL. Etiological treatment in patients infected by Trypanosoma cruzi: experiences in Argentina. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2006 Dec. 19(6):583-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

168. Sosa-Estani S, Cura E, Velazquez E, Yampotis C, Segura EL. Etiological treatment of young women infected with Trypanosoma cruzi, and prevention of congenital transmission. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2009 Sep-Oct. 42 (5):484-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

169. Alarcón A, Morgan M, Montgomery SP, Scavo L, Wong EC, Hahn A, et al. Diagnosis and Treatment of Congenital Chagas Disease in a Premature Infant. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2016 Dec. 5 (4):e28-e31. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

170. Álvarez MG, Vigliano C, Lococo B, Bertocchi G, Viotti R. Prevention of congenital Chagas disease by Benznidazole treatment in reproductive-age women. An observational study. Acta Trop. 2017 Oct. 174:149-152. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

171. Murcia L, Simón M, Carrilero B, Roig M, Segovia M. Treatment of Infected Women of Childbearing Age Prevents Congenital Trypanosoma cruzi Infection by Eliminating the Parasitemia Detected by PCR. J Infect Dis. 2017 May 1. 215 (9):1452-1458. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

172. Cafferata ML, Toscani MA, Althabe F, Belizán JM, Bergel E, Berrueta M, et al. Short-course Benznidazole treatment to reduce Trypanosoma cruzi parasitic load in women of reproductive age (BETTY): a non-inferiority randomized controlled trial study protocol. Reprod Health. 2020 Aug 24. 17 (1):128. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

173. Perez-Zetune V, Bialek SR, Montgomery SP, Stillwaggon E. Congenital Chagas Disease in the United States: The Effect of Commercially Priced Benznidazole on Costs and Benefits of Maternal Screening. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2020 May. 102 (5):1086-1089. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

174. Fabbro DL, Danesi E, Olivera V, Codebó MO, Denner S, Heredia C, et al. Trypanocide treatment of women infected with Trypanosoma cruzi and its effect on preventing congenital Chagas. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014 Nov. 8 (11):e3312. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

175. Braga MS, Lauria-Pires L, Arganaraz ER, et al. Persistent infections in chronic Chagas' disease patients treated with anti-Trypanosoma cruzi nitroderivatives. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2000 May-Jun. 42(3):157-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

176. Lauria-Pires L, Braga MS, Vexenat AC, et al. Progressive chronic Chagas heart disease ten years after treatment with anti-Trypanosoma cruzi nitroderivatives. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2000 Sep-Oct. 63(3-4):111-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

177. Lauria-Pires L, Nitz N, Vexenat AC, et al. The treatment of Chagas disease patients with nitroderivative is unsatisfactory. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2001. 43:175-81.

178. Lana Md, Lopes LA, Martins HR, Bahia MT, Machado-de-Assis GF, Wendling AP, et al. Clinical and laboratory status of patients with chronic Chagas disease living in a vector-controlled area in Minas Gerais, Brazil, before and nine years after aetiological treatment. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009 Dec. 104(8):1139-47. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

179. Machado-de-Assis GF, Silva AR, Do Bem VA, Bahia MT, Martins-Filho OA, Dias JC, et al. Posttherapeutic cure criteria in Chagas' disease: conventional serology followed by supplementary serological, parasitological, and molecular tests. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2012 Aug. 19(8):1283-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

180. Pinto AY, Valente Vda C, Coura JR, Valente SA, Junqueira AC, Santos LC, et al. Clinical follow-up of responses to treatment with benznidazol in Amazon: a cohort study of acute chagas disease. PLoS One. 2013. 8(5):e64450. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

181. Villar JC, Perez JG, Cortes OL, Riarte A, Pepper M, Marin-Neto JA, et al. Trypanocidal drugs for chronic asymptomatic Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 May 27. CD003463. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

182. Parrado R, Ramirez JC, de la Barra A, Alonso-Vega C, Juiz N, Ortiz L, et al. Usefulness of Serial Blood Sampling and PCR Replicates for Treatment Monitoring of Patients with Chronic Chagas Disease. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2019 Feb. 63 (2):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

183. Alvarez MG, Bertocchi GL, Cooley G, Albareda MC, Viotti R, Perez-Mazliah DE, et al. Treatment Success in Trypanosoma cruzi Infection Is Predicted by Early Changes in Serially Monitored Parasite-Specific T and B Cell Responses. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016 Apr. 10 (4):e0004657. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

184. Sosa Estani S, Segura EL. Treatment of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in the undetermined phase. Experience and current guidelines of treatment in Argentina. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 1999. 94 Suppl 1:363-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

185. Viotti R, Vigliano C, Lococo B, Bertocchi G, Petti M, Alvarez MG, et al. Long-term cardiac outcomes of treating chronic Chagas disease with benznidazole versus no treatment: a nonrandomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2006 May 16. 144 (10):724-34. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

186. Morillo CA, Marin-Neto JA, Avezum A, Sosa-Estani S, Rassi A Jr, Rosas F, et al. Randomized Trial of Benznidazole for Chronic Chagas' Cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med. 2015 Oct. 373 (14):1295-306. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

187. Marin-Neto JA, Rassi A Jr, Avezum A Jr, Mattos AC, Rassi A, Morillo CA, et al. The BENEFIT trial: testing the hypothesis that trypanocidal therapy is beneficial for patients with chronic Chagas heart disease. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009 Jul. 104 Suppl 1:319-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

188. Vallejo M, Reyes PP, Martinez Garcia M, Gonzalez Garay AG. Trypanocidal drugs for late-stage, symptomatic Chagas disease (Trypanosoma cruzi infection). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Dec 11. 12 (12):CD004102. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

189. Ribeiro V, Dias N, Paiva T, Hagström-Bex L, Nitz N, Pratesi R, et al. Current trends in the pharmacological management of Chagas disease. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist. 2020 Apr. 12:7-17. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

190. Nunes MCP, Buss LF, Silva JLP, Martins LNA, Oliveira CDL, Cardoso CS, et al. Incidence and Predictors of Progression to Chagas Cardiomyopathy: Long-Term Follow-Up of Trypanosoma cruzi-Seropositive Individuals. Circulation. 2021 Nov 9. 144 (19):1553-1566. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

191. Maguire JH. Treatment of Chagas' Disease--Time Is Running Out. N Engl J Med. 2015 Oct. 373 (14):1369-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

192. WHO. Chagas disease (also known as American trypanosomiasis). World Health Organization. Available at https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/chagas-disease-(american-trypanosomiasis). April 6, 2023; Accessed: June 22, 2023.

193. PAHO/WHO. Chagas Disease. Pan American Health Organization. Available at https://www.paho.org/en/topics/chagas-disease. Accessed: June 22, 2023.

194. Abbott A, Montgomery SP, Chancey RJ. Characteristics and Adverse Events of Patients for Whom Nifurtimox Was Released Through CDC-Sponsored Investigational New Drug Program for Treatment of Chagas Disease - United States, 2001-2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022 Mar 11. 71 (10):371-374. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

195. Altcheh J, Castro L, Dib JC, Grossmann U, Huang E, Moscatelli G, et al. Prospective, historically controlled study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a new paediatric formulation of nifurtimox in children aged 0 to 17 years with Chagas disease one year after treatment (CHICO). PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021 Jan. 15 (1):e0008912. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

196. Falk N, Berenstein AJ, Moscatelli G, Moroni S, González N, Ballering G, et al. Effectiveness of Nifurtimox in the Treatment of Chagas Disease: a Long-Term Retrospective Cohort Study in Children and Adults. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2022 May 17. 66 (5):e0202121. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

197. Villar JC, Perez JG, Cortes OL, Riarte A, Pepper M, Marin-Neto JA, et al. Trypanocidal drugs for chronic asymptomatic Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 May 27. 2014 (5):CD003463. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

198. Cardinalli-Neto A, Bestetti RB, Cordeiro JA, Rodrigues VC. Predictors of all-cause mortality for patients with chronic Chagas' heart disease receiving implantable cardioverter defibrillator therapy. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2007 Dec. 18(12):1236-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

199. Barbosa MP, da Costa Rocha MO, de Oliveira AB, Lombardi F, Ribeiro AL. Efficacy and safety of implantable cardioverter-defibrillators in patients with Chagas disease. Europace. 2013 Jul. 15(7):957-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

200. Rassi A Jr, Rassi A. Another disappointing result with implantable cardioverter-defibrillator therapy in patients with Chagas disease. Europace. 2013 Sep. 15(9):1383. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

201. Gali WL, Sarabanda AV, Baggio JM, Ferreira LG, Gomes GG, Marin-Neto JA, et al. Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators for treatment of sustained ventricular arrhythmias in patients with Chagas' heart disease: comparison with a control group treated with amiodarone alone. Europace. 2014 May. 16(5):674-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

202. Carmo AAL, de Sousa MR, Agudelo JF, Boersma E, Rocha MOC, Ribeiro ALP, et al. Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator in Chagas heart disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Int J Cardiol. 2018 Sep 15. 267:88-93. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

203. Rassi FM, Minohara L, Rassi A Jr, Correia LCL, Marin-Neto JA, Rassi A, et al. Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Clinical Outcome After Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator Therapy in Patients With Chagas Heart Disease. JACC Clin Electrophysiol. 2019 Oct. 5 (10):1213-1223. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

204. Romero J, Velasco A, Pisani CF, Alviz I, Briceno D, Díaz JC, et al. Advanced Therapies for Ventricular Arrhythmias in Patients With Chagasic Cardiomyopathy: JACC State-of-the-Art Review. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2021 Mar 9. 77 (9):1225-1242. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

205. Campos MPC, Bernardes LFG, Melo JPC, Santos LCD, Teixeira CHR, Pavão MLRC, et al. Defibrillation Threshold Testing and Long-term Follow-up in Chagas Disease. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2022 Dec. 119 (6):923-928. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

206. Kirchhoff LV. American trypanosomiasis (Chagas' disease)--a tropical disease now in the United States. N Engl J Med. 1993 Aug 26. 329 (9):639-44. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

207. Diez M, Favaloro L, Bertolotti A, Burgos JM, Vigliano C, Lastra MP, et al. Usefulness of PCR strategies for early diagnosis of Chagas' disease reactivation and treatment follow-up in heart transplantation. Am J Transplant. 2007 Jun. 7 (6):1633-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

208. Fiorelli AI, Santos RH, Oliveira JL Jr, Lourenço-Filho DD, Dias RR, Oliveira AS, et al. Heart transplantation in 107 cases of Chagas' disease. Transplant Proc. 2011 Jan-Feb. 43(1):220-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

209. Gray EB, La Hoz RM, Green JS, Vikram HR, Benedict T, Rivera H, et al. Reactivation of Chagas disease among heart transplant recipients in the United States, 2012-2016. Transpl Infect Dis. 2018 Dec. 20 (6):e12996. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

210. Fiorelli AI, Stolf NA, Honorato R, et al. Later evolution after cardiac transplantation in Chagas' disease. Transplant Proc. 2005 Jul-Aug. 37(6):2793-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

211. Vieira JL, Sobral MGV, Macedo FY, Florêncio RS, Almeida GPL, Vasconcelos GG, et al. Long-term Survival Following Heart Transplantation for Chagas Versus Non-Chagas Cardiomyopathy: A Single-center Experience in Northeastern Brazil Over 2 Decades. Transplant Direct. 2022 Jul. 8 (7):e1349. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

212. Herbella FA, Aquino JL, Stefani-Nakano S, Artifon EL, Sakai P, Crema E, et al. Treatment of achalasia: lessons learned with Chagas' disease. Dis Esophagus. 2008. 21 (5):461-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

213. Rassi A Jr, Rassi A, Marcondes de Rezende J. American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease). Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2012 Jun. 26 (2):275-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

214. Pochini Cde C, Gagliardi D, Saad Júnior R, de Almeida RF, Corsi PR. Esophagectomy with gastroplasty in advanced megaesophagus: late results of omeprazole use. Rev Col Bras Cir. 2015 Sep-Oct. 42 (5):299-304. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

215. Dantas RO. Management of Esophageal Dysphagia in Chagas Disease. Dysphagia. 2021 Jun. 36 (3):517-522. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

216. Di Martino C, Nesi G, Tonelli F. Surgical treatment of chagasic megacolon with Duhamel-Habr-Gama technique modulated by frozen-section examination. Surg Infect (Larchmt). 2014 Aug. 15(4):454-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

217. Garcia RL, Matos BM, Féres O, Rocha JJ. Surgical treatment of Chagas megacolon. Critical analysis of outcome in operative methods. Acta Cir Bras. 2008. 23 Suppl 1:83-92; discussion 92. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

218. Lescure FX, Canestri A, Melliez H, et al. Chagas disease, France. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008 Apr. 14(4):644-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

219. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The Global Surveillance Network of the ISTM and CDC. The GeoSentinel Newsletter: Information for Action. Infrequent Diagnoses & Their Geographic Exposures. 2008.

220. Carter YL, Juliano JJ, Montgomery SP, Qvarnstrom Y. Acute Chagas disease in a returning traveler. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2012 Dec. 87(6):1038-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

221. Virreira M, Truyens C, Alonso-Vega C, Brutus L, Jijena J, Torrico F, et al. Comparison of Trypanosoma cruzi lineages and levels of parasitic DNA in infected mothers and their newborns. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007 Jul. 77(1):102-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

222. Cantey PT, Stramer SL, Townsend RL, Kamel H, Ofafa K, Todd CW, et al. The United States Trypanosoma cruzi Infection Study: evidence for vector-borne transmission of the parasite that causes Chagas disease among United States blood donors. Transfusion. 2012 Sep. 52(9):1922-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

223. Bern C, Kjos S, Yabsley MJ, Montgomery SP. Trypanosoma cruzi and Chagas' Disease in the United States. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2011 Oct. 24(4):655-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

224. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. American Trypanosomiasis (also known as Chagas Disease): Antiparasitic Treatment. CDC. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/chagas/health_professionals/tx.html. 2019 Oct 9; Accessed: June 23, 2023.

225. Fabbro D, Velazquez E, Bizai ML, Denner S, Olivera V, Arias E, et al. Evaluation of the ELISA-F29 test as an early marker of therapeutic efficacy in adults with chronic Chagas disease. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2013. 55(3):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

226. PAHO/WHO. Chagas Disease. Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization. Available at https://www.paho.org/en/topics/chagas-disease. Accessed: June 5, 2023.

227. Irish A, Whitman JD, Clark EH, Marcus R, Bern C. Updated Estimates and Mapping for Prevalence of Chagas Disease among Adults, United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 2022 Jul. 28 (7):1313-1320. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

228. Hochberg NS, Montgomery SP. Chagas Disease. Ann Intern Med. 2023 Feb. 176 (2):ITC17-ITC32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

229. Gómez-Ochoa SA, Rojas LZ, Echeverría LE, Muka T, Franco OH. Global, Regional, and National Trends of Chagas Disease from 1990 to 2019: Comprehensive Analysis of the Global Burden of Disease Study. Glob Heart. 2022. 17 (1):59. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

230. Abras A, Ballart C, Fernández-Arévalo A, Pinazo MJ, Gascón J, Muñoz C, et al. Worldwide Control and Management of Chagas Disease in a New Era of Globalization: a Close Look at Congenital Trypanosoma cruzi Infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2022 Apr 20. 35 (2):e0015221. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

231. Forsyth CJ, Manne-Goehler J, Bern C, Whitman J, Hochberg NS, Edwards M, et al. Recommendations for Screening and Diagnosis of Chagas Disease in the United States. J Infect Dis. 2022 May 4. 225 (9):1601-1610. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

232. Edwards MS, Montgomery SP. Congenital Chagas disease: progress toward implementation of pregnancy-based screening. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2021 Oct 1. 34 (5):538-545. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

233. Hannan AJ. International Brain Research Organization--Sixth World Congress of Neuroscience. 10-15 July 2003, Prague, Czech Republic. IDrugs. 2003 Sep. 6 (9):852-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

Louis V Kirchhoff, MD, MPH Professor of Internal Medicine (Infectious Diseases), Epidemiology, and Psychiatry, University of Iowa, Roy J and Lucille A Carver College of Medicine and College of Public Health; Staff Physician, Medical Service, Iowa City Veterans Affairs Medical Center

Louis V Kirchhoff, MD, MPH is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Blood Banks, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene

Disclosure: Received salary from Goldfinch Diagnostics Inc. for equity owner; Received royalty from Abbott Laboratories, Inc. for licensed technology.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

John W King, MD Professor of Medicine, Chief, Section of Infectious Diseases, Director, Viral Therapeutics Clinics for Hepatitis, Louisiana State University School of Medicine in Shreveport; Consultant in Infectious Diseases, Overton Brooks Veterans Affairs Medical Center

John W King, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American College of Physicians, American Federation for Medical Research, American Society for Microbiology, Association of Subspecialty Professors, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Honor Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pranatharthi Haran Chandrasekar, MBBS, MD Professor, Chief of Infectious Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine

Pranatharthi Haran Chandrasekar, MBBS, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Society for Microbiology, International Immunocompromised Host Society, Infectious Diseases Society of America

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mary D Nettleman, MD, MS, MACP Professor and Chair, Department of Medicine, Michigan State University College of Human Medicine

Mary D Nettleman, MD, MS, MACP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, Association of Professors of Medicine, Central Society for Clinical and Translational Research, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Society of General Internal Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

• Print this section
• Print the entire contents of
• Print the entire contents of article