Medication Summary

Antibiotics are the mainstay of treatment for infective endocarditis (IE). Goals to achieve to maximize clinical outcomes are early diagnosis, accurate microorganism identification, reliable susceptibility testing, prolonged intravenous (IV) administration of bactericidal antimicrobial agents, proper monitoring of potentially toxic antimicrobial regimens, and aggressive surgical management of correctable mechanical complications.

Please see Treatment and Guidelines.

Questions

John L Brusch MD. infective endocarditis and it’s mimics in the critical care unit. Cunha CB , Cunha BA. inInfectious diseases and antimicrobial stewardship in critical care medicine. Fourth. NY,NY: CRC Press; 2020. Four: 255-263.
Guzek A, Braksator W, Gąsior Z, Kuśmierczyk M, Różański J, Rybicki Z. Infective endocarditis - can we treat it more effectively?. Kardiochir Torakochirurgia Pol. 2020 Mar. 17 (1):8-14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hackett AJ, Stuart J. Infective endocarditis: identification and management in the emergency department. Emerg Med Pract. 2020 Sep. 22 (9):1-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Durack DT, Lukes AS, Bright DK. New criteria for diagnosis of infective endocarditis: utilization of specific echocardiographic findings. Duke Endocarditis Service. Am J Med. 1994 Mar. 96 (3):200-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Li js ,Sexton dj , mick n, et al. Proposed modifications to the duke criteria. CID. 2000. 3096:633-638.
Fowler VG, Durak DT, Selton-Suty C, et al. The 2023 Duke-ISCVID Criteria for Infective Endocarditis: Updating the Modified Duke Criteria. CID. May 2023. 200. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Burke A. Cunha. Diagnostic Reasoning and Clinical Problem Solving. Cheston B. Cunha, Burke A. Cunha. Infectious Diseases and Antimicrobial Stewardship in Critical Care Medicine. 4th. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2020. 3-13.
John Brusch. Infectious Endocarditis. Cunha. Schlossberg Cln infectious disease. 3. NY,NY: Oxford; 2022. 3: 243-254.
Brusch JL. Infective endocarditis and its mimics in the critical care unit. Cunha BA, ed. Infectious Diseases in Critical Care. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2007. 261-2.
Popovich KJ, Weinstein RA. Questioning Old Staphylococcus aureus Beliefs With New Technology. J Infect Dis. 2023 Apr 26. 227 (9):1028-1030. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bajdechi M, Vlad ND, Dumitrascu M, Mocanu E, Dumitru IM, Cernat RC, et al. Bacterial endocarditis masked by COVID-19: A case report. Exp Ther Med. 2022 Feb. 23 (2):186. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hayes DE, Rhee DW, Hisamoto K, Smith D, Ro R, Vainrib AF, et al. Two cases of acute endocarditis misdiagnosed as COVID-19 infection. Echocardiography. 2021 May. 38 (5):798-804. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Quintero-Martinez JA, Hindy JR, Mahmood M, Gerberi DJ, DeSimone DC, Baddour LM. A clinical profile of infective endocarditis in patients with recent COVID-19: A systematic review. Am J Med Sci. 2022 Jul. 364 (1):16-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Demetriades P, Ridley P, Yazdani F, Duckett S. Challenges of remote consultations: a delayed diagnosis of aortic valve endocarditis complicated by recurrent intracranial events. BMJ Case Rep. 2022 Feb 28. 15 (2):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].
George A, Alampoondi Venkataramanan SV, John KJ, Mishra AK. Infective endocarditis and COVID -19 coinfection: An updated review. Acta Biomed. 2022 Mar 14. 93 (1):e2022030. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lerner PI, Weinstein L. Infective endocarditis in the antibiotic era. N Engl J Med. 1966 Feb 17. 274(7):388-93 concl. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gorbovitskiĭ EB, Levitskiĭ ER, Petropavlovskaia NN, et al. [Effect of adsorbent encapsulation on its effectiveness in removing metabolites of varying molecular weights]. Probl Gematol Pereliv Krovi. 1981 Feb. 26 (2):55-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
El-Dalati S, Cronin D, Riddell J 4th, Shea M, Weinberg RL, Stoneman E, et al. A step-by-step guide to implementing a multidisciplinary endocarditis team. Ther Adv Infect Dis. 2021 Jan-Dec. 8:20499361211065596. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Rawson TM, Hernandez B, Moore LSP, Herrero P, Charani E, Ming D, et al. A Real-world Evaluation of a Case-based Reasoning Algorithm to Support Antimicrobial Prescribing Decisions in Acute Care. Clin Infect Dis. 2021 Jun 15. 72 (12):2103-2111. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lerner PI, Weinstein L. Infective endocarditis in the antibiotic era. N Engl J Med. 1966 Feb 3. 274(5):259-66 contd. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lerner PI, Weinstein L. Infective endocarditis in the antibiotic era. N Engl J Med. 1966 Jan 27. 274(4):199-206 contd. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Brusch J. Infective Endocarditis: Management in the Era of Intravascular Devices. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2007.
Weinstein LW, Brusch JL. Infective Endocarditis. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1996.
Wang A, Athan E, Pappas PA, Fowler VG Jr, Olaison L, Paré C, et al. Contemporary clinical profile and outcome of prosthetic valve endocarditis. JAMA. 2007 Mar 28. 297(12):1354-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Schranz AJ, Fleischauer A, Chu VH, Wu LT, Rosen DL. Trends in Drug Use-Associated Infective Endocarditis and Heart Valve Surgery, 2007 to 2017: A Study of Statewide Discharge Data. Ann Intern Med. 2018 Dec 4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Soong G, Chun J, Parker D, Prince A. Staphylococcus aureus activation of caspase 1/calpain signaling mediates invasion through human keratinocytes. J Infect Dis. 2012 May 15. 205(10):1571-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Snygg-Martin U, Giang KW, Dellborg M, Robertson J, Mandalenakis Z. Cumulative Incidence of Infective Endocarditis in Patients with Congenital Heart Disease: A Nationwide, Case-Control Study Over Nine Decades. Clin Infect Dis. 2021 Oct 20. 73 (8):1469-1475. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kourtis Ap, hartfield k. Coagulase-negative staphylococcal prosthetic valve endocarditis--a contemporary update based on the International Collaboration on Endocarditis: prospective cohort study. Mmwr morb mortal Willy rep. 2019. 68:214-219.
Reyes MP, Ali A, Mendes RE, Biedenbach DJ. Resurgence of Pseudomonas endocarditis in Detroit, 2006-2008. Medicine (Baltimore). 2009 Sep. 88(5):294-301. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Murdoch DR, Corey GR, Hoen B, Miró JM, Fowler VG Jr, Bayer AS, et al. Clinical presentation, etiology, and outcome of infective endocarditis in the 21st century: the International Collaboration on Endocarditis-Prospective Cohort Study. Arch Intern Med. 2009 Mar 9. 169(5):463-73. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Baddour LM, Cha YM, Wilson WR. Clinical practice. Infections of cardiovascular implantable electronic devices. N Engl J Med. 2012 Aug 30. 367(9):842-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kingsford L, Mendoza R, Dillon J, Chun CA, Vu KP. Broadening and Diversifying the Behavioral and Biomedical Research Workforce through Early Access to an Undergraduate Research Training Program. UI J. 2022 Fall. 13 (2):1-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Alvarez-Moreno CA, Morales-López S, Rodriguez GJ, et al. The Mortality Attributable to Candidemia in C. auris Is Higher than That in Other Candida Species: Myth or Reality?. J Fungi (Basel). 2023 Mar 31. 9 (4):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Fuller R, Jacobs SE. Candida Infectious Endocarditis and Implantable Cardiac Device Infections. Mycopathologia. 2023 Jun 5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lin KP, Yeh TK, Chuang YC, Wang LA, Fu YC, Liu PY. Blood Culture Negative Endocarditis: A Review of Laboratory Diagnostic Approaches. Int J Gen Med. 2023. 16:317-327. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bor DH, Woolhandler S, Nardin R, Brusch J, Himmelstein DU. Infective endocarditis in the u.s., 1998-2009: a nationwide study. PLoS One. 2013. 8(3):e60033. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Alnabelsi TS, Sinner G, Al-Abdouh A, Marji M, Viquez K, Abusnina W, et al. The Evolving Trends in Infective Endocarditis and Determinants of Mortality: a 10-year Experience From a Tertiary Care Epicenter. Curr Probl Cardiol. 2023 Jun. 48 (6):101673. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Sonneville R, Mirabel M, Hajage D, et al. Neurologic complications and outcomes of infective endocarditis in critically ill patients: The ENDOcardite en REAnimation prospective multicenter study. Crit Care Med. 2011 Jun. 39(6):1474-1481. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Baddley JW, Benjamin DK Jr, Patel M, Miró J, Athan E, Barsic B, et al. Candida infective endocarditis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2008 Jul. 27(7):519-29. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Hill EE, Herijgers P, Claus P, Vanderschueren S, Herregods MC, Peetermans WE. Infective endocarditis: changing epidemiology and predictors of 6-month mortality: a prospective cohort study. Eur Heart J. 2007 Jan. 28(2):196-203. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Liu PY, Huang YF, Tang CW, Chen YY, Hsieh KS, Ger LP, et al. Staphylococcus lugdunensis infective endocarditis: a literature review and analysis of risk factors. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2010 Dec. 43 (6):478-84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wallace SM, Walton BI, Kharbanda RK, Hardy R, Wilson AP, Swanton RH. Mortality from infective endocarditis: clinical predictors of outcome. Heart. 2002 Jul. 88(1):53-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Di Salvo G, Habib G, Pergola V, Avierinos JF, Philip E, Casalta JP, et al. Echocardiography predicts embolic events in infective endocarditis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001 Mar 15. 37(4):1069-76. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ortiz-Bautista C, López J, García-Granja PE, Vilacosta I, Sevilla T, Sarriá C, et al. Right-sided infective endocarditis in cardiac device carriers: Clinical profile and prognosis. Med Clin (Barc). 2017 Jun 22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Özcan C, Raunsø J, Lamberts M, Køber L, Lindhardt TB, Bruun NE, et al. Infective endocarditis and risk of death after cardiac implantable electronic device implantation: a nationwide cohort study. Europace. 2017 Jan 10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cresti A, Chiavarelli M, Scalese M, Nencioni C, Valentini S, Guerrini F, et al. Epidemiological and mortality trends in infective endocarditis, a 17-year population-based prospective study. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 2017 Feb. 7 (1):27-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Janga KC, Sinha A, Greenberg S, Sharma K. Nephrologists Hate the Dialysis Catheters: A Systemic Review of Dialysis Catheter Associated Infective Endocarditis. Case Rep Nephrol. 2017. 2017:9460671. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hémar V, Camou F, Roubaud-Baudron C, Ternacle J, Pernot M, Greib C, et al. The Mortality of Infective endocarditis with and without Surgery in the Elderly (MoISE) study. Clin Infect Dis. 2023 Jun 27. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
[Guideline] National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Prophylaxis against infective endocarditis. Antimicrobial prophylaxis against infective endocarditis in adults and children undergoing interventional procedures. 2008. (NICE clinical guideline No. 64).
Blagova OV, Kogan EA, Lutokhina YA, Kukleva AD, Ainetdinova DH, Novosadov VM, et al. Subacute and chronic post-covid myoendocarditis: clinical presentation, role of coronavirus persistence and autoimmune mechanisms. Kardiologiia. 2021 Jul 1. 61 (6):11-27. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Terpenning MS, Buggy BP, Kauffman CA. Infective endocarditis: clinical features in young and elderly patients. Am J Med. 1987 Oct. 83(4):626-34. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bansal RC. Infective endocarditis. Med Clin North Am. 1995 Sep. 79(5):1205-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Rahman S, O'Connor AL, Becker SL, Patel RK, Martindale RG, Tsikitis VL. Gut microbial metabolites and its impact on human health. Ann Gastroenterol. 2023 Jul-Aug. 36 (4):360-368. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Masuya R, Muraji T, Kanaan SB, Harumatsu T, Muto M, Toma M, et al. Circulating maternal chimeric cells have an impact on the outcome of biliary atresia. Front Pediatr. 2022. 10:1007927. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Snygg-Martin U, Gustafsson L, Rosengren L, Alsiö A, Ackerholm P, Andersson R, et al. Cerebrovascular complications in patients with left-sided infective endocarditis are common: a prospective study using magnetic resonance imaging and neurochemical brain damage markers. Clin Infect Dis. 2008 Jul 1. 47(1):23-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Weinstein L. Life-threatening complications of infective endocarditis and their management. Arch Intern Med. 1986 May. 146(5):953-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Weinstein L, Schlesinger JJ. Pathoanatomic, pathophysiologic and clinical correlations in endocarditis (first of two parts). N Engl J Med. 1974 Oct 17. 291(16):832-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wang CC, Lee CH, Chan CY, Chen HW. Splenic infarction and abscess complicating infective endocarditis. Am J Emerg Med. 2009 Oct. 27(8):1021.e3-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kradin RL. Pathology of infective endocarditis. Brusch JL, ed. Infective Endocarditis: Management in the Era of Intravascular Devices. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2007. 101-18.
Brusch JL. Pathoanatomical, pathophysiological and clinical correlations. Brusch JL, ed. Infective Endocarditis: Management in the Era of Intravascular Devices. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2007. 119-41.
Tonelli A, Lumngwena EN, Ntusi NAB. The oral microbiome in the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2023 Jun. 20 (6):386-403. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Quintero-Martinez JA, Hindy JR, Mahmood M, Gerberi DJ, DeSimone DC, Baddour LM. A clinical profile of infective endocarditis in patients with recent COVID-19: A systematic review. Am J Med Sci. 2022 Jul. 364 (1):16-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Éliás AJ, Barna V, Patoni C, Demeter D, Veres DS, Bunduc S, et al. Probiotic supplementation during antibiotic treatment is unjustified in maintaining the gut microbiome diversity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Med. 2023 Jul 19. 21 (1):262. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Mayer S, Bonhag C, Jenkins P, Cornett B, Watts P, Scherbak D. Probiotic-Associated Central Venous Catheter Bloodstream Infections Lead to Increased Mortality in the ICU. Crit Care Med. 2023 Jun 1. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Khatib R, Riederer K, Saeed S, Johnson LB, Fakih MG, Sharma M, et al. Time to positivity in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: possible correlation with the source and outcome of infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2005 Sep 1. 41(5):594-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lee A, Mirrett S, Reller LB, Weinstein MP. Detection of bloodstream infections in adults: how many blood cultures are needed?. J Clin Microbiol. 2007 Nov. 45(11):3546-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
[Guideline] Mermel LA, Allon M, Bouza E, Craven DE, Flynn P, O'Grady NP, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of intravascular catheter-related infection: 2009 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2009 Jul 1. 49(1):1-45. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Weinstein MP. Blood culture contamination: persisting problems and partial progress. J Clin Microbiol. 2003 Jun. 41(6):2275-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Casella F, Rana B, Casazza G, Bhan A, Kapetanakis S, Omigie J, et al. The potential impact of contemporary transthoracic echocardiography on the management of patients with native valve endocarditis: a comparison with transesophageal echocardiography. Echocardiography. 2009 Sep. 26(8):900-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Archibald LK, Pallangyo K, Kazembe P, Reller LB. Blood culture contamination in Tanzania, Malawi, and the United States: a microbiological tale of three cities. J Clin Microbiol. 2006 Dec. 44(12):4425-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Thuny F, Grisoli D, Collart F, Habib G, Raoult D. Management of infective endocarditis: challenges and perspectives. Lancet. 2012 Mar 10. 379(9819):965-75. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Falagas ME, Manta KG, Ntziora F, Vardakas KZ. Linezolid for the treatment of patients with endocarditis: a systematic review of the published evidence. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006 Aug. 58(2):273-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Sridhar AR, Lavu M, Yarlagadda V, Reddy M, Gunda S, Afzal R, et al. Cardiac Implantable Electronic Device-Related Infection and Extraction Trends in the U.S. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2017 Mar. 40 (3):286-293. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Buchan BW, Windham S, Balada-Llasat JM, Leber A, et al. Practical Comparison of the BioFire FilmArray Pneumonia Panel to Routine Diagnostic Methods and Potential Impact on Antimicrobial Stewardship in Adult Hospitalized Patients with Lower Respiratory Tract Infections. J Clin Microbiol. 2020 Jun 24. 58 (7):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].
[Guideline] Cheitlin MD, Armstrong WF, Aurigemma GP, Beller GA, Bierman FZ, Davis JL, et al. ACC/AHA/ASE 2003 guideline update for the clinical application of echocardiography: summary article: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (ACC/AHA/ASE Committee to Update the 1997 Guidelines for the Clinical Application of Echocardiography). Circulation. 2003 Sep 2. 108(9):1146-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Jassal DS, Picard MH. Echocardiography. Brusch JL, ed. Infective Endocarditis: Management in the Era of Intravascular Devices. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2007. 255-72.
Roe MT, Abramson MA, Li J, Heinle SK, Kisslo J, Corey GR, et al. Clinical information determines the impact of transesophageal echocardiography on the diagnosis of infective endocarditis by the duke criteria. Am Heart J. 2000 Jun. 139(6):945-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Feuchtner GM, Stolzmann P, Dichtl W, Schertler T, Bonatti J, Scheffel H, et al. Multislice computed tomography in infective endocarditis: comparison with transesophageal echocardiography and intraoperative findings. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009 Feb 3. 53(5):436-44. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chen W, Sajadi MM, Dilsizian V. Merits of FDG PET/CT and Functional Molecular Imaging Over Anatomic Imaging With Echocardiography and CT Angiography for the Diagnosis of Cardiac Device Infections. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2018 Nov. 11 (11):1679-1691. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Fowler VG Jr, Boucher HW, Corey GR, Abrutyn E, Karchmer AW, Rupp ME, et al. Daptomycin versus standard therapy for bacteremia and endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus. N Engl J Med. 2006 Aug 17. 355(7):653-65. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Iversen K, Ihlemann N, Gill SU, Madsen T, Elming H, Jensen KT, et al. Partial Oral versus Intravenous Antibiotic Treatment of Endocarditis. N Engl J Med. 2018 Aug 28. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cunha BA. Persistent S. aureus acute bacteremia: clinical pathway for diagnosis and treatment. Antibiot for Clin. 2006. 10:39-46.
Tansarli GS, Chapin KC. A Closer Look at the Laboratory Impact of Utilizing ePlex Blood Culture Identification Panels: a Workflow Analysis Using Rapid Molecular Detection for Positive Blood Cultures. Microbiol Spectr. 2022 Oct 26. 10 (5):e0179622. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Yee R, Dien Bard J, Simner PJ. The Genotype-to-Phenotype Dilemma: How Should Laboratories Approach Discordant Susceptibility Results?. J Clin Microbiol. 2021 May 19. 59 (6):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Pujol M, Miró JM, Shaw E, Aguado JM, et al. Daptomycin Plus Fosfomycin Versus Daptomycin Alone for Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia and Endocarditis: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2021 May 4. 72 (9):1517-1525. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Buckholz K, Larsen CT. Severity of gentamicin is nephrotoxic effect on patients with infective endocarditis: a prospective observation of cohort study of 373 patients. Clinical Infect Dis. 2009. 48:65-71.
Jones T, Yeaman MR, Sakoulas G, Yang SJ, Proctor RA, Sahl HG, et al. Failures in clinical treatment of Staphylococcus aureus Infection with daptomycin are associated with alterations in surface charge, membrane phospholipid asymmetry, and drug binding. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008 Jan. 52(1):269-78. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Bailey J, Summers KM. Dalbavancin: a new lipoglycopeptide antibiotic. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2008 Apr 1. 65 (7):599-610. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kaasch AJ, Jung N. Editorial Commentary: Transesophageal Echocardiography in Staphylococcus aureus Bloodstream Infection--Always Needed?. Clin Infect Dis. 2015 Jul 1. 61 (1):29-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Fowler VG Jr, Miro JM, Hoen B, Cabell CH, Abrutyn E, Rubinstein E, et al. Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis: a consequence of medical progress. JAMA. 2005 Jun 22. 293(24):3012-21. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Khatib R, Johnson LB, Fakih MG, Riederer K, Khosrovaneh A, Shamse Tabriz M, et al. Persistence in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: incidence, characteristics of patients and outcome. Scand J Infect Dis. 2006. 38(1):7-14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Duval X, Selton-Suty C, Alla F, Salvador-Mazenq M, Bernard Y, Weber M, et al. Endocarditis in patients with a permanent pacemaker: a 1-year epidemiological survey on infective endocarditis due to valvular and/or pacemaker infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2004 Jul 1. 39(1):68-74. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Sławiński G, Lewicka E, Kempa M, Budrejko S, Raczak G. Infections of cardiac implantable electronic devices: Epidemiology, classification, treatment, and prognosis. Adv Clin Exp Med. 2018 Jul 26. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wilson WR, Gewitz M, Lockhart PB, Bolger AF, et al. Adapted from: Prevention of Viridans Group Streptococcal Infective Endocarditis: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. J Am Dent Assoc. 2021 Nov. 152 (11):886-902.e2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Pronovost P, Needham D, Berenholtz S, Sinopoli D, Chu H, Cosgrove S, et al. An intervention to decrease catheter-related bloodstream infections in the ICU. N Engl J Med. 2006 Dec 28. 355(26):2725-32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ferro P, Boni R, Bartoli F, Lazzeri F, Slart RHJA, Erba PA. Radionuclide Imaging of Infective Endocarditis. Cardiol Clin. 2023 May. 41 (2):233-249. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chesdachai S, Baddour LM, Sohail MR, Palraj BR, Madhavan M, Tabaja H, et al. Candidemia in Patients With Cardiovascular Implantable Electronic Devices: Uncertainty in Management Based on Current International Guidelines. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2023 Jul. 10 (7):ofad318. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bach DS. Perspectives on the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association guidelines for the prevention of infective endocarditis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009 May 19. 53(20):1852-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Thornhill MH, Dayer MJ, Forde JM, et al. Impact of the NICE guideline recommending cessation of antibiotic prophylaxis for prevention of infective endocarditis: before and after study. BMJ. 2011 May 3. 342:d2392. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Satriano UM, Nenna A, Spadaccio C, Pollari F, Fischlein T, Chello M, et al. Guidelines on prosthetic heart valve management in infective endocarditis: a narrative review comparing American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology and European Society of Cardiology guidelines. Ann Transl Med. 2020 Dec. 8 (23):1625. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Slipczuk L, Codolosa JN, Davila CD, Romero-Corral A, Yun J, Pressman GS, et al. Infective endocarditis epidemiology over five decades: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2013. 8 (12):e82665. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Brusch JL. Legionnaire's Disease: Cardiac Manifestations. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2017 Mar. 31 (1):69-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Thornhill MH, Gibson TB, Cutler E, Dayer MJ, Chu VH, Lockhart PB, et al. Antibiotic Prophylaxis and Incidence of Endocarditis Before and After the 2007 AHA Recommendations. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 Nov 13. 72 (20):2443-2454. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Janszky I, Gémes K, Ahnve S, Asgeirsson H, Möller J. Invasive Procedures Associated With the Development of Infective Endocarditis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 Jun 19. 71 (24):2744-2752. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Forsblom E, Ruotsalainen E, Ollgren J, Järvinen A. Telephone consultation cannot replace bedside infectious disease consultation in the management of Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis. 2013 Feb. 56 (4):527-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
[Guideline] Baddour LM, Wilson WR, Bayer AS, et al. Infective Endocarditis in Adults: Diagnosis, Antimicrobial Therapy, and Management of Complications: A Scientific Statement for Healthcare Professionals From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2015 Oct 13. 132 (15):1435-86. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Weber C, Luehr M, Petrov G, Misfeld M, et al. Impact of the 2009 ESC Guideline Change on Surgically Treated Infective Endocarditis. Ann Thorac Surg. 2022 Feb 22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
[Guideline] Wilson W, Taubert KA, Gewitz M, Lockhart PB, Baddour LM, Levison M, et al. Prevention of infective endocarditis: guidelines from the American Heart Association: a guideline from the American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, and the Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Circulation. 2007 Oct 9. 116(15):1736-54. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Tarakji,kg. bacterial envelope to prevent cardiac implantable device infections. new england J Med. may 16 2019. 380:3895.

Media Gallery

Acute bacterial endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus with perforation of the aortic valve and aortic valve vegetations. Courtesy of Janet Jones, MD, Laboratory Service, Wichita Veterans Affairs Medical Center.
Acute bacterial endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus with aortic valve ring abscess extending into myocardium. Courtesy of Janet Jones, MD, Laboratory Service, Wichita Veterans Affairs Medical Center.
A middle-aged man with a history of intravenous drug use who presented with severe myalgias and a petechial rash. He was diagnosed with right-sided staphylococcal endocarditis.
This is a magnified portion of a parasternal long axis view from a transthoracic echocardiogram. There is a small curvilinear vegetation on the mitral valve as indicated. The patient presented with a headache and fever, and CT scan of the brain revealed an occipital hemorrhage. The patient had a history of intravenous drug use and multiple blood cultures grew Staphylococcus aureus.
A young adult with a history of intravenous drug use, endocarditis involving the tricuspid valve with Staphylococcus aureus, and multiple septic pulmonary emboli. Pulmonary lesions on chest radiograph are most prominent in the right upper lobe with both solid and cavitary appearance.
Mitral valve: endocarditis with valve destruction and vegetation. Note the posterior leaflet of the mitral valve, with an irregular vegetation on the atrial surface, resulting in valve destruction at the commissure between the anterior leaflet and the posterior leaflet.
Aortic valve: healed endocarditis. Note the gaping hole with the fibrous rim, and a small strand at the free edge. The hole is at the line of closure. The affected valve is the left cusp. Note the right noncoronary cusp (immediate to the left in this image) demonstrates a small, multichanneled fenestration at the commissure, immediately adjacent to similar fenestrations in the left coronary cusp. These are physiologic lesions occurring with age and are unrelated to endocarditis.
Aortic valve: bicuspid, with infectious endocarditis. In this excised valve, note the bulky vegetations on the ventricular surfaces, with distortion of the valve surfaces.
Mitral valve: postrheumatic, with infectious endocarditis. A defect is seen in the scarred valve, with focal surface hemorrhage. The patient also underwent aortic valve replacement, as there was contiguous infection.
The surface of the valves, in most cases, demonstrates areas of acute neutrophilic inflammation with admixed fibrin and platelets. Degenerated bacterial colonies are seen at the left. Also, areas of microcalcification may mimic bacterial deposits.
Infectious endocarditis, subacute phase. Hemorrhage and prominent granulation tissue with neovascularity is apparent throughout. This aortic valve showed fibrin exudate on the ventricular surface (below), with more prominent organization and granulation on the aortic surface (above).
Infectious endocarditis, surface of valve leaflet with fibrin; higher magnification of previous image. A chronic infiltrate is seen, just under the denuded thrombosed surface, with primarily macrophages and focal macrophage giant cells.
Bioprosthetic valve with endocarditis. Note the large bacterial colony (staphylococci by culture) in the absence of significant inflammation; the xenograft tissue is not viable, and nuclear detail is not apparent.

of 13

Table 1. Clinical Features of Infective Endocarditis According to Causative Organism

Causative Organism(s)	Clinical Features of IE
Staphylococcus aureus	Overall, S aureus infection is the most common cause of IE, including PVE, acute IE, and IVDA IE. Approximately 35-60.5% of staphylococcal bacteremias are complicated by IE. More than half of cases are not associated with underlying valvular disease. The mortality rate for S aureus IE is 40-50%. Staphylococcus aureus infection is the second most common cause of nosocomial BSIs, second only to CoNS infection. The incidence of MRSA infections, both the hospital- and community-acquired varieties, has dramatically increased (50% of isolates). Sixty percent of individuals are intermittent carriers of MRSA or MSSA. The primary risk factor for S aureus BSI is the presence of intravascular lines. Other risk factors include cancer, diabetes, corticosteroid use, IVDA, alcoholism, and renal failure. The realization that approximately 50% of hospital- and community-acquired staphylococcal bacteremias arise from infected vascular catheters has led to the reclassification of staphylococcal BSIs. BSIs are carried not only in the hospital but also in any type of healthcare facility (eg, nursing home, dialysis center). Of S aureus bacteremia cases in the United States, 7.8% (200,000) per year are associated with intravascular catheters.
Streptococcus viridans	This organism accounts for approximately 50-60% of cases of subacute disease. Most clinical signs and symptoms are mediated immunologically. S gordonii has migrated from Norway to the United States over the last 15 years. It characteristically is associated with a sterile inflammatory response manifest after the bacterial component has been successfully treated.
Streptococcus intermedius group	These infections may be acute or subacute. Streptococcus intermedius infection accounts for 15% of streptococcal IE cases. Members of the S intermedius group, especially S anginosus, are unique among the streptococci in that they can actively invade tissue and form abscesses, often in the CNS.
Abiotrophia	Approximately 5% of subacute cases of IE are due to infection with Abiotrophia species. They require metabolically active forms of vitamin B₆for growth. This type of IE is associated with large vegetations that lead to embolization and a high rate of posttreatment relapse.
Group D streptococci	Most cases are subacute. The source is the gastrointestinal or genitourinary tract. It is the third most common cause of IE. They pose major resistance problems for antibiotics.
Nonenterococcal group D	The clinical course is subacute. Infection often reflects underlying abnormalities of the large bowel (eg, ulcerative colitis, polyps, cancer). The organisms are sensitive to penicillin.
Group B streptococci	Acute disease develops in pregnant patients and older patients with underlying diseases (eg, cancer, diabetes, alcoholism). The mortality rate is 40%. Complications include metastatic infection, arterial thrombi, and congestive heart failure. It often requires valve replacement for cure.
Group A, C, and G streptococci	Acute disease resembles that of S aureus IE (30-70% mortality rate), with suppurative complications. Group A organisms respond to penicillin alone. Group C and G organisms require a combination of synergistic antibiotics (as with enterococci).
Coagulase-negative S aureus	This causes subacute disease. It behaves similarly to S viridans infection. It accounts for approximately 30% of PVE cases and less than 5% of NVE cases.
Staphylococcus lugdunensis	Staphylococcus lugdunensis is another coagulase-negative Staphylococcus species but is extremely aggressive compared to coagulase-positive S aureus. S lugdunensis frequently causes IE.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa	This is usually acute, except when it involves the right side of the heart in IVDA IE. Surgery is commonly required for cure.
HACEK (ie, Haemophilus aphrophilus, Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Cardiobacterium hominis, Eikenella corrodens, Kingella kingae)	These organisms usually cause subacute disease. They account for approximately 5% of IE cases. They are the most common gram-negative organisms isolated from patients with IE. Complications may include massive arterial emboli and congestive heart failure. Cure requires ampicillin, gentamicin, and surgery.
Fungal	These usually cause subacute disease. The most common organism of both fungal NVE and fungal PVE is Candida albicans. Fungal IVDA IE is usually caused by Candida parapsilosis or Candida tropicalis. Aspergillus species are observed in fungal PVE and NIE. Candida auris is progressively contaminating all types of healthcare facilities worldwide
Bartonella	The most involved species is Bartonella quintana. Infective endocarditis typically develops in homeless males who have extremely substandard hygiene. Bartonella must be considered in cases of culture-negative endocarditis among homeless individuals.
Multiple pathogens (polymicrobial	Pseudomonas and enterococci are the most common combination of organisms. It is observed in cases of IVDA IE The cardiac surgery mortality rate is twice that associated with single-agent IE.