Haemophilus Influenzae Infections Questions & Answers

1. Tunkel AR, Hartman BJ, Kaplan SL, Kaufman BA, Roos KL, Scheld WM, et al. Practice guidelines for the management of bacterial meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2004 Nov 1. 39 (9):1267-84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

2. Collins S, Vickers A, Ladhani SN, Flynn S, Platt S, Ramsay ME, et al. Clinical and Molecular Epidemiology of Childhood Invasive Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae Disease in England and Wales. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2016 Mar. 35 (3):e76-84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

3. LaCross NC, Marrs CF, Gilsdorf JR. Population structure in nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae. Infect Genet Evol. 2013 Mar. 14:125-36. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Moxon ER. Bacterial variation, virulence and vaccines. Microbiology. 2009 Apr. 155 (Pt 4):997-1003. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

5. Ward JI, Kenneth MZ. Haemophilus influenzae. Feigin RD, Cherry JD, Fletcher J, eds. Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders and Co; 1998. 1464-1482.

6. Gilsdorf JR. What the pediatrician should know about non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae. J Infect. 2015 Jun. 71 Suppl 1:S10-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

7. Sakata H, Adachi Y, Morozumi M, Ubukata K. Invasive Haemophilus influenzae infections in children in Kamikawa subprefecture, Hokkaido, Japan, 2006-2015: The effectiveness of H. influenzae type b vaccine. J Infect Chemother. 2017 Jul. 23 (7):459-462. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

8. Langereis JD, de Jonge MI. Unraveling Haemophilus influenzae virulence mechanisms enable discovery of new targets for antimicrobials and vaccines. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2020 Jun. 33 (3):231-237. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

9. Kaufhold I, Osbahr S, Shima K, Marwitz S, Rohmann K, Drömann D, et al. Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) directly interfere with the regulation of E-cadherin in lung epithelial cells. Microbes Infect. 2017 Aug 10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Division of Bacterial Diseases. Haemophilus influenzae Disease (Including Hib). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/hi-disease/clinicians.html. July 25, 2016; Accessed: September 26, 2017.

11. Watt JP, Wolfson LJ, O'Brien KL, Henkle E, Deloria-Knoll M, McCall N, et al. Burden of disease caused by Haemophilus influenzae type b in children younger than 5 years: global estimates. Lancet. 2009 Sep 12. 374(9693):903-11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Active Bacterial Core Surveillance (ABCs) Report Emerging Infections Program Network Haemophilus influenzae, 2015. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/abcs/reports-findings/survreports/hib15.pdf. Accessed: September 11, 2017.

13. Jacups SP. The continuing role of Haemophilus influenzae type b carriage surveillance as a mechanism for early detection of invasive disease activity. Hum Vaccin. 2011 Dec 1. 7(12):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

14. Active Bacterial Core Surveillance Report, Emerging Infections Program Network Haemophilus Influenzae, 2006. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/abcs/survreports.hib.pdf.

15. Mahapatra T. Vaccine coverage estimation using Global Positioning System and Google Earth: A commentary. Ann Trop Med Public Health. June 22, 2017. 10:295-6. [Full Text].

16. Jin Z, Romero-Steiner S, Carlone GM, et al. Haemophilus influenzae type a infection and its prevention. Infect Immun. 2007 Jun. 75(6):2650-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

17. MacNeil JR, Cohn AC, Farley M, Mair R, Baumbach J, Bennett N, et al. Current epidemiology and trends in invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease--United States, 1989-2008. Clin Infect Dis. 2011 Dec. 53(12):1230-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Ortiz-Romero MDM, Espejo-García MP, Alfayate-Miguelez S, Ruiz-López FJ, Zapata-Hernandez D, Gonzalez-Pacanowska AJ, et al. Epidemiology of Nasopharyngeal Carriage by Haemophilus influenzae in Healthy Children: A Study in the Mediterranean Coast Region. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2017 Oct. 36 (10):919-923. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Whittaker R, Economopoulou A, Dias JG, Bancroft E, Ramliden M, Celentano LP, et al. Epidemiology of Invasive Haemophilus influenzae Disease, Europe, 2007-2014. Emerg Infect Dis. 2017 Mar. 23 (3):396-404. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Giufrè M, Cardines R, Brigante G, Orecchioni F, Cerquetti M. Emergence of Invasive Haemophilus influenzae Type A Disease in Italy. Clin Infect Dis. 2017 Jun 1. 64 (11):1626-1628. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

21. Tsang RS, Proulx JF, Hayden K, Shuel M, Lefebvre B, Boisvert AA, et al. Characteristics of invasive Haemophilus influenzae serotype a (Hia) from Nunavik, Canada and comparison with Hia strains in other North American Arctic regions. Int J Infect Dis. 2017 Apr. 57:104-107. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Szabo BG, Lenart KS, Tirczka T, Ostorhazi E. Clinical and microbiological characteristics of adult invasive Haemophilus influenzae infections: results of a 14-year single-center experience from Hungary. Infection. 2018 Dec. 46 (6):855-860. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. von Gottberg A, Cohen C, Whitelaw A, Chhagan M, Flannery B, Cohen AL, et al. Invasive disease due to Haemophilus influenzae serotype b ten years after routine vaccination, South Africa, 2003-2009. Vaccine. 2011 Nov 26. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

24. Dong Q, Shi W, Cheng X, Chen C, Meng Q, Yao K, et al. Widespread of non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae with high genetic diversity after two decades use of Hib vaccine in China. J Clin Lab Anal. 2020 Apr. 34 (4):e23145. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Tsang RSW, Ulanova M. The changing epidemiology of invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease: Emergence and global presence of serotype a strains that may require a new vaccine for control. Vaccine. 2017 Jul 24. 35 (33):4270-4275. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

26. Singh V, Nanjappa S, Pabbathi S, Greene JN. Invasive Haemophilus influenzae Infection in Patients With Cancer. Cancer Control. 2017 Jan. 24 (1):66-71. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

27. Lansbury L, Lim B, Baskaran V, Lim WS. Co-infections in people with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect. 2020 Aug. 81 (2):266-275. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Murphy TF. Haemophilus influenzae. Bennett JE, Dolin R, Blaser MJ, eds. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. Elsevier Health Sciences; 1-2:

29. Butler DF, Myers AL. Changing Epidemiology of Haemophilus influenzae in Children. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2018 Mar. 32 (1):119-128. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

30. Miyahara R, Suzuki M, Morimoto K, Chang B, Yoshida S, Yoshinaga S, et al. Nosocomial Outbreak of Upper Respiratory Tract Infection With β-Lactamase-Negative Ampicillin-Resistant Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2018 Jun. 39 (6):652-659. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Haemophilus Influenzae serotype b (Hib) disease. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmb/diseaseinfo/haeminfluserob_t.htm. Accessed: Feb 15, 2008.

32. Cleland G, Leung C, Wan Sai Cheong J, Francis J, Heney C, Nourse C. Paediatric invasive Haemophilus influenzae in Queensland, Australia, 2002-2011: Young Indigenous children remain at highest risk. J Paediatr Child Health. 2017 Sep 4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

33. Gorga SM, Gilsdorf JR, Mychaliska KP. Haemophilus influenzae Serotype f Epiglottitis: A Case Report and Review. Hosp Pediatr. 2017 Jan. 7 (1):54-56. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. Forstner C, Rohde G, Rupp J, Schuette H, Ott SR, Hagel S, et al. Community-acquired Haemophilus influenzae pneumonia--New insights from the CAPNETZ study. J Infect. 2016 May. 72 (5):554-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

35. Walker WT, Jackson CL, Allan RN, Collins SA, Kelso MJ, Rineh A, et al. Primary ciliary dyskinesia ciliated airway cells show increased susceptibility to Haemophilus influenzae biofilm formation. Eur Respir J. 2017 Sep. 50 (3):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

36. Shoemark A. Haemophilus influenzae; biofilms in primary ciliary dyskinesia: a moving story. Eur Respir J. 2017 Sep. 50 (3):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

37. Sriram KB, Cox AJ, Clancy RL, Slack MPE, Cripps AW. Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a review for clinicians. Crit Rev Microbiol. 2017 May 25. 1-18. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. Tan WS, Peh HY, Liao W, Pang CH, Chan TK, Lau SH, et al. Cigarette Smoke-Induced Lung Disease Predisposes to More Severe Infection with Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae: Protective Effects of Andrographolide. J Nat Prod. 2016 May 27. 79 (5):1308-15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

39. Harris TM, Rumaseb A, Beissbarth J, Barzi F, Leach AJ, Smith-Vaughan HC. Culture of non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae from the nasopharynx: Not all media are equal. J Microbiol Methods. 2017 Jun. 137:3-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

40. Roush SW, Murphy TV. Historical comparisons of morbidity and mortality for vaccine-preventable diseases in the United States. JAMA. 2007 Nov 14. 298(18):2155-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

41. Price EP, Harris TM, Spargo J, Nosworthy E, Beissbarth J, Chang AB, et al. Simultaneous identification of Haemophilus influenzae and Haemophilus haemolyticus using real-time PCR. Future Microbiol. 2017 Jun. 12:585-593. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

42. Bjarnason A, Lindh M, Westin J, Andersson LM, Baldursson O, Kristinsson KG, et al. Utility of oropharyngeal real-time PCR for S. pneumoniae and H. influenzae for diagnosis of pneumonia in adults. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2017 Mar. 36 (3):529-536. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

43. Dunne EM, Mantanitobua S, Singh SP, Reyburn R, Tuivaga E, Rafai E, et al. Real-time qPCR improves meningitis pathogen detection in invasive bacterial-vaccine preventable disease surveillance in Fiji. Sci Rep. 2016 Dec 23. 6:39784. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

44. Farahani H, Ghaznavi-Rad E, Mondanizadeh M, MirabSamiee S, Khansarinejad B. Specific detection of common pathogens of acute bacterial meningitis using an internally controlled tetraplex-PCR assay. Mol Cell Probes. 2016 Aug. 30 (4):261-265. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

45. Khumalo J, Nicol M, Hardie D, Muloiwa R, Mteshana P, Bamford C. Diagnostic accuracy of two multiplex real-time polymerase chain reaction assays for the diagnosis of meningitis in children in a resource-limited setting. PLoS One. 2017. 12 (3):e0173948. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

46. Abdeldaim GM, Strålin K, Korsgaard J, Blomberg J, Welinder-Olsson C, Herrmann B. Multiplex quantitative PCR for detection of lower respiratory tract infection and meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Neisseria meningitidis. BMC Microbiol. 2010 Dec 3. 10:310. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

47. Gadsby NJ, Russell CD, McHugh MP, Mark H, Conway Morris A, Laurenson IF, et al. Comprehensive Molecular Testing for Respiratory Pathogens in Community-Acquired Pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Apr 1. 62 (7):817-823. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

48. Soysal A, Toprak DG, Türkoğlu S, Bakir M. Evaluation of the line probe assay for the rapid detection of bacterial meningitis pathogens in cerebrospinal fluid samples from children. BMC Microbiol. 2017 Jan 11. 17 (1):14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

49. Roisin S, Huang TD, de Mendonça R, Nonhoff C, Bogaerts P, Hites M, et al. Prospective evaluation of a high multiplexing real-time polymerase chain reaction array for the rapid identification and characterization of bacteria causative of nosocomial pneumonia from clinical specimens: a proof-of-concept study. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2018 Jan. 37 (1):109-116. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

50. Higgins O, Clancy E, Forrest MS, Piepenburg O, Cormican M, Boo TW, et al. Duplex recombinase polymerase amplification assays incorporating competitive internal controls for bacterial meningitis detection. Anal Biochem. 2018 Apr 1. 546:10-16. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

51. Bruin JP, Kostrzewa M, van der Ende A, Badoux P, Jansen R, Boers SA, et al. Identification of Haemophilus influenzae and Haemophilus haemolyticus by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2014 Feb. 33 (2):279-84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

52. Zhu B, Xiao D, Zhang H, Zhang Y, Gao Y, Xu L, et al. MALDI-TOF MS distinctly differentiates nontypable Haemophilus influenzae from Haemophilus haemolyticus. PLoS One. 2013. 8 (2):e56139. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

53. Månsson V, Gilsdorf JR, Kahlmeter G, Kilian M, Kroll JS, Riesbeck K, et al. Capsule Typing of Haemophilus influenzae by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry. Emerg Infect Dis. 2018 Mar. 24 (3):443-452. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

54. Takeuchi N, Segawa S, Ishiwada N, Ohkusu M, Tsuchida S, Satoh M, et al. Capsular serotyping of Haemophilus influenzae by using matrix-associated laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. J Infect Chemother. 2018 Jul. 24 (7):510-514. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

55. Topaz N, Boxrud D, Retchless AC, Nichols M, Chang HY, Hu F, et al. BMScan: using whole genome similarity to rapidly and accurately identify bacterial meningitis causing species. BMC Infect Dis. 2018 Aug 15. 18 (1):405. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

56. Singleton R, Hammitt L, Hennessy T, et al. The Alaska Haemophilus influenzae type b experience: lessons in controlling a vaccine-preventable disease. Pediatrics. 2006 Aug. 118(2):e421-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

57. Kiedrowska M, Kuch A, Żabicka D, Waśko I, Ronkiewicz P, Wasiak K, et al. Beta-lactam resistance among Haemophilus influenzae isolates in Poland. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 2017 Aug 14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

58. Li JP, Hua CZ, Sun LY, Wang HJ, Chen ZM, Shang SQ. Epidemiological Features and Antibiotic Resistance Patterns of Haemophilus influenzae Originating from Respiratory Tract and Vaginal Specimens in Pediatric Patients. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2017 Jun 16. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

59. Maddi S, Kolsum U, Jackson S, Barraclough R, Maschera B, Simpson KD, et al. Ampicillin resistance in Haemophilus influenzae from COPD patients in the UK. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2017. 12:1507-1518. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

60. Tsang RSW, Shuel M, Whyte K, Hoang L, Tyrrell G, Horsman G, et al. Antibiotic susceptibility and molecular analysis of invasive Haemophilus influenzae in Canada, 2007 to 2014. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2017 May 1. 72 (5):1314-1319. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

61. Tribuddharat C, Srifuengfung S. Multiple drug resistance in Haemophilus influenzae isolated from patients in Bangkok, Thailand. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 2017 Jun. 9:121-123. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

62. Deguchi T, Ito S, Hatazaki K, Horie K, Yasuda M, Nakane K, et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Haemophilus influenzae strains isolated from the urethra of men with acute urethritis and/or epididymitis. J Infect Chemother. 2017 Jun 12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

63. Wajima T, Seyama S, Nakamura Y, Kashima C, Nakaminami H, Ushio M, et al. Prevalence of macrolide-non-susceptible isolates among β-lactamase-negative ampicillin-resistant Haemophilus influenzae in a tertiary care hospital in Japan. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 2016 Sep. 6:22-26. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

64. Yamada S, Seyama S, Wajima T, Yuzawa Y, Saito M, Tanaka E, et al. β-Lactamase-non-producing ampicillin-resistant Haemophilus influenzae is acquiring multidrug resistance. J Infect Public Health. 2020 Apr. 13 (4):497-501. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

65. Su PY, Huang AH, Lai CH, Lin HF, Lin TM, Ho CH. Extensively drug-resistant Haemophilus influenzae - emergence, epidemiology, risk factors, and regimen. BMC Microbiol. 2020 Apr 28. 20 (1):102. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

66. Kuo SC, Chen PC, Shiau YR, Wang HY, Lai JF 1st, Huang W, et al. Levofloxacin-resistant haemophilus influenzae, Taiwan, 2004-2010. Emerg Infect Dis. 2014 Aug. 20 (8):1386-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

67. Chang CM, Shih HI, Wu CJ, Lauderdale TL, Lee NY, Lee CC, et al. Fluoroquinolone resistance in Haemophilus influenzae from nursing home residents in Taiwan: correlation of MICs and mutations in QRDRs. J Appl Microbiol. 2020 Jun. 128 (6):1624-1633. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

68. Torumkuney D, Smayevsky J, Relloso MS, Sucari A, Pennini M, Brilla E, et al. Results from the Survey of Antibiotic Resistance (SOAR) 2015-17 in Latin America (Argentina, Chile and Costa Rica): data based on CLSI, EUCAST (dose-specific) and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) breakpoints. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2020 Apr 1. 75 (Suppl 1):i43-i59. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

69. Torumkuney D, Bratus E, Yuvko O, Pertseva T, Morrissey I. Results from the Survey of Antibiotic Resistance (SOAR) 2016-17 in Ukraine: data based on CLSI, EUCAST (dose-specific) and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) breakpoints. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2020 Apr 1. 75 (Suppl 1):i100-i111. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

70. Torumkuney D, Hammami A, Mezghani Maalej S, Ayed NB, Revathi G, Zerouali K, et al. Results from the Survey of Antibiotic Resistance (SOAR) 2015-18 in Tunisia, Kenya and Morocco: data based on CLSI, EUCAST (dose-specific) and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) breakpoints. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2020 Apr 1. 75 (Suppl 1):i2-i18. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

71. Jean SS, Lee WS, Ko WC, Hsueh PR. In vitro susceptibility of ceftaroline against clinically important Gram-positive cocci, Haemophilus species and Klebsiella pneumoniae in Taiwan: Results from the Antimicrobial Testing Leadership and Surveillance (ATLAS) in 2012-2018. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2020 May 11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

72. Sader HS, Carvalhaes CG, Duncan LR, Shortridge D. Antimicrobial Activity of Ceftolozane-Tazobactam and Comparators against Clinical Isolates of Haemophilus influenzae from the United States and Europe. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2020 Apr 21. 64 (5):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

73. Van PH, Binh PT, Minh NH, Morrissey I, Torumkuney D. Results from the Survey of Antibiotic Resistance (SOAR) 2009-11 in Vietnam. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016 May. 71 Suppl 1:i93-102. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

74. Torumkuney D, Gur D, Soyletir G, Gurler N, Aktas Z, Sener B, et al. Results from the Survey of Antibiotic Resistance (SOAR) 2002-09 in Turkey. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016 May. 71 Suppl 1:i85-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

75. Jamsheer A, Rafay AM, Daoud Z, Morrissey I, Torumkuney D. Results from the Survey of Antibiotic Resistance (SOAR) 2011-13 in the Gulf States. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016 May. 71 Suppl 1:i45-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

76. Hu F, Zhu D, Wang F, Morrissey I, Wang J, Torumkuney D. Results from the Survey of Antibiotic Resistance (SOAR) 2009-11 and 2013-14 in China. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016 May. 71 Suppl 1:i33-43. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

77. Torumkuney D, Chaiwarith R, Reechaipichitkul W, Malatham K, Chareonphaibul V, Rodrigues C, et al. Results from the Survey of Antibiotic Resistance (SOAR) 2012-14 in Thailand, India, South Korea and Singapore. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016 May. 71 Suppl 1:i3-19. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

78. Kacou-Ndouba A, Revathi G, Mwathi P, Seck A, Diop A, Kabedi-Bajani MJ, et al. Results from the Survey of Antibiotic Resistance (SOAR) 2011-14 in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Republic of Senegal and Kenya. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016 May. 71 Suppl 1:i21-31. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

79. Zafar A, Hasan R, Nizamuddin S, Mahmood N, Mukhtar S, Ali F, et al. Antibiotic susceptibility in Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pyogenes in Pakistan: a review of results from the Survey of Antibiotic Resistance (SOAR) 2002-15. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016 May. 71 Suppl 1:i103-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

80. Satola SW, Collins JT, Napier R, et al. Capsule gene analysis of invasive Haemophilus influenzae: accuracy of serotyping and prevalence of IS1016 among nontypeable isolates. J Clin Microbiol. 2007 Oct. 45(10):3230-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

81. Scarborough M, Gordon SB, Whitty CJ, et al. Corticosteroids for bacterial meningitis in adults in sub-Saharan Africa. N Engl J Med. 2007 Dec 13. 357(24):2441-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

82. van de Beek D, de Gans J, McIntyre P, et al. Corticosteroids for acute bacterial meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007. (1):CD004405. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

83. Brouwer MC, McIntyre P, Prasad K, van de Beek D. Corticosteroids for acute bacterial meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Sep 12. CD004405. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

84. Gudina EK, Tesfaye M, Adane A, Lemma K, Shibiru T, Wieser A, et al. Adjunctive dexamethasone therapy in unconfirmed bacterial meningitis in resource limited settings: is it a risk worth taking?. BMC Neurol. 2016 Aug 26. 16 (1):153. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

85. Ogunlesi TA, Odigwe CC, Oladapo OT. Adjuvant corticosteroids for reducing death in neonatal bacterial meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Nov 11. CD010435. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

86. McIntyre PB, Berkey CS, King SM, et al. Dexamethasone as adjunctive therapy in bacterial meningitis. A meta- analysis of randomized clinical trials since 1988. JAMA. 1997 Sep 17. 278(11):925-31. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

87. [Guideline] Tunkel AR, Hartman BJ, Kaplan SL, et al. Practice guidelines for the management of bacterial meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2004 Nov 1. 39(9):1267-84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

88. Peltola H, Roine I, Fernández J, Zavala I, Ayala SG, Mata AG, et al. Adjuvant glycerol and/or dexamethasone to improve the outcomes of childhood bacterial meningitis: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Nov 15. 45 (10):1277-86. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

89. Ajdukiewicz KM, Cartwright KE, Scarborough M, Mwambene JB, Goodson P, Molyneux ME, et al. Glycerol adjuvant therapy in adults with bacterial meningitis in a high HIV seroprevalence setting in Malawi: a double-blind, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2011 Apr. 11 (4):293-300. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

90. Peltola H, Leib SL. Performance of adjunctive therapy in bacterial meningitis depends on circumstances. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2013 Dec. 32 (12):1381-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

91. Syrogiannopoulos GA, Lourida AN, Theodoridou MC, et al. Dexamethasone therapy for bacterial meningitis in children: 2- versus 4-day regimen. J Infect Dis. 1994 Apr. 169(4):853-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

92. Lee S, Yen MT. Management of preseptal and orbital cellulitis. Saudi J Ophthalmol. 2011 Jan. 25 (1):21-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

93. Orbital Cellulitis. American Academy of Ophthalmology. Available at https://www.aao.org/focalpointssnippetdetail.aspx?id=1b0ef397-e539-4c0d-8608-55bb5c621c94. Accessed: September 27, 2017.

94. Lawrence R. Guidelines for the management of ADULTS with suspected epiglottitis. Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust. Available at https://www.nuh.nhs.uk/handlers/downloads.ashx?id=62734. December 14, 2015; Accessed: September 27, 2017.

95. Epiglottitis and Supraglottitis. Gloucestershire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust. Available at http://www.gloshospitals.nhs.uk/en/Trust-Staff/Antibiotic-Guidelines/ENT-Guidelines/Epiglottitis/. April 23, 2014; Accessed: September 27, 2017.

96. Castellazzi L, Mantero M, Esposito S. Update on the Management of Pediatric Acute Osteomyelitis and Septic Arthritis. Int J Mol Sci. 2016 Jun 1. 17 (6):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

97. Peltola H, Pääkkönen M, Kallio P, Kallio MJ, Osteomyelitis-Septic Arthritis (OM-SA) Study Group. Prospective, randomized trial of 10 days versus 30 days of antimicrobial treatment, including a short-term course of parenteral therapy, for childhood septic arthritis. Clin Infect Dis. 2009 May 1. 48 (9):1201-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

98. Bradley JS. What is the appropriate treatment course for bacterial arthritis in children?. Clin Infect Dis. 2009 May 1. 48 (9):1211-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

99. Swamy S, Sharma, R. Duration of Treatment of Gram-Negative Bacteremia: Are Shorter Courses of Antimicrobial Therapy Feasible?. Infectious Diseases in Clinical Practice. May 2016. 24:155–160.

100. Park SH, Milstone AM, Diener-West M, Nussenblatt V, Cosgrove SE, Tamma PD. Short versus prolonged courses of antibiotic therapy for children with uncomplicated Gram-negative bacteraemia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014 Mar. 69 (3):779-85. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

101. Nelson AN, Justo JA, Bookstaver PB, Kohn J, Albrecht H, Al-Hasan MN. Optimal duration of antimicrobial therapy for uncomplicated Gram-negative bloodstream infections. Infection. 2017 May 6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

102. Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, Levy MM, Antonelli M, et. al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock: 2016. Crit Care Med. 2017 Mar. 45 (3):486-552. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

103. Lieberthal AS, Carroll AE, Chonmaitree T, Ganiats TG, Hoberman A, Jackson MA, et al. The diagnosis and management of acute otitis media. Pediatrics. 2013 Mar. 131 (3):e964-99. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

104. Chow AW, Benninger MS, Brook I, Brozek JL, Goldstein EJ, Hicks LA, et al. IDSA clinical practice guideline for acute bacterial rhinosinusitis in children and adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2012 Apr. 54 (8):e72-e112. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

105. Swingler G, Fransman D, Hussey G. Conjugate vaccines for preventing Haemophilus influenzae type B infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007 Apr 18. CD001729. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

106. Salam RA, Das JK, Dojo Soeandy C, Lassi ZS, Bhutta ZA. Impact of Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib) and viral influenza vaccinations in pregnancy for improving maternal, neonatal and infant health outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Jun 9. CD009982. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

107. Peltola H, Roine I, Fernandez J, et al. Adjuvant glycerol and/or dexamethasone to improve the outcomes of childhood bacterial meningitis: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Nov 15. 45(10):1277-86. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

108. Charania NA, Moghadas SM. Modelling the effects of booster dose vaccination schedules and recommendations for public health immunization programs: the case of Haemophilus influenzae serotype b. BMC Public Health. 2017 Sep 13. 17 (1):705. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

109. Bridges CB, Coyne-Beasley T, on behalf of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices recommended immunization schedule for adults aged 19 years or older - United States, 2014. Ann Intern Med. 2014;160(3):190-7. Available at http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=1819123.

110. Lowry F. ACIP issues 2014 immunization schedule for adults. Medscape Medical News. February 3, 2014. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/820145. Accessed: February 10, 2014.

111. Robinson CL, Romero JR, Kempe A, Pellegrini C, Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) Child/Adolescent Immunization Work Group. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Recommended Immunization Schedule for Children and Adolescents Aged 18 Years or Younger - United States, 2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017 Feb 10. 66 (5):134-135. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

112. Prymula R, Peeters P, Chrobok V, Kriz P, Novakova E, Kaliskova E, et al. Pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides conjugated to protein D for prevention of acute otitis media caused by both Streptococcus pneumoniae and non-typable Haemophilus influenzae: a randomised double-blind efficacy study. Lancet. 2006 Mar 4. 367 (9512):740-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

113. Palmu AA, Jokinen J, Nieminen H, Rinta-Kokko H, Ruokokoski E, Puumalainen T, et al. Effect of pneumococcal Haemophilus influenzae protein D conjugate vaccine (PHiD-CV10) on outpatient antimicrobial purchases: a double-blind, cluster randomised phase 3-4 trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014 Mar. 14 (3):205-12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

114. Karppinen S, Toivonen L, Schuez-Havupalo L, Teros-Jaakkola T, Waris M, Auranen K, et al. Effectiveness of the ten-valent pneumococcal Haemophilus influenzae protein D conjugate vaccine (PHiD-CV10) against all respiratory tract infections in children under two years of age. Vaccine. 2019 May 16. 37 (22):2935-2941. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

115. Leroux-Roels G, Van Damme P, Haazen W, Shakib S, Caubet M, Aris E, et al. Phase I, randomized, observer-blind, placebo-controlled studies to evaluate the safety, reactogenicity and immunogenicity of an investigational non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) protein vaccine in adults. Vaccine. 2016 Jun 8. 34 (27):3156-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

116. Teo E, Lockhart K, Purchuri SN, Pushparajah J, Cripps AW, van Driel ML. Haemophilus influenzae oral vaccination for preventing acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Jun 19. 6:CD010010. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

117. Szenborn L, Osipova IV, Czajka H, Kharit SM, Jackowska T, François N, et al. Immunogenicity, safety and reactogenicity of the pneumococcal non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae protein D conjugate vaccine (PHiD-CV) in 2-17-year-old children with asplenia or splenic dysfunction: A phase 3 study. Vaccine. 2017 Sep 25. 35 (40):5331-5338. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

118. Van Damme P, Leroux-Roels G, Vandermeulen C, De Ryck I, Tasciotti A, Dozot M, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae-Moraxella catarrhalis vaccine. Vaccine. 2019 May 21. 37 (23):3113-3122. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

119. Gkentzi D, Collins S, Ramsay ME, Slack MP, Ladhani S. Revised recommendations for the prevention of secondary Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease. J Infect. 2013 Nov. 67 (5):486-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

Joseph Adrian L Buensalido, MD Clinical Associate Professor, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Philippine General Hospital, University of the Philippines Manila College of Medicine; Specialist in Infectious Diseases, Private Practice

Joseph Adrian L Buensalido, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Society for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Michigan Infectious Disease Society, Philippine College of Physicians, Philippine Medical Association, Philippine Society for Microbiology and Infectious Diseases

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a speaker or a member of a speakers bureau for: Unilab; BSV Bioscience; Philcare Pharma<br/>Received sponsorship to medical conference for: Pfizer.

Anna Flor G Malundo, MD, FPCP Medical Specialist in STD/AIDS Guidance, Intervention and Prevention (SAGIP) Clinic, Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Philippine General Hospital, University of the Philippines Manila College of Medicine, Philippines

Anna Flor G Malundo, MD, FPCP is a member of the following medical societies: Philippine College of Physicians, Philippine Society for Microbiology and Infectious Diseases

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Charles V Sanders, MD Edgar Hull Professor and Chairman, Department of Internal Medicine, Professor of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Louisiana State University School of Medicine in New Orleans; Medical Director, Medicine Hospital Center, Charity Hospital and Medical Center of Louisiana at New Orleans; Consulting Staff, Ochsner Medical Center

Charles V Sanders, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics, Alpha Omega Alpha, American Association for Physician Leadership, American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Association of University Professors, American Clinical and Climatological Association, American College of Physicians, American Federation for Medical Research, American Geriatrics Society, American Lung Association, American Medical Association, American Society for Microbiology, American Thoracic Society, American Venereal Disease Association, Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Association of American Medical Colleges, Association of American Physicians, Association of Professors of Medicine, Infectious Disease Society for Obstetrics and Gynecology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Louisiana State Medical Society, Orleans Parish Medical Society, Royal Society of Medicine, Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Honor Society, Society of General Internal Medicine, Southeastern Clinical Club, Southern Medical Association, Southern Society for Clinical Investigation, Southwestern Association of Clinical Microbiology, The Foundation for AIDS Research

Disclosure: Receives royalties from Baxter International for: Takeda-receives royalties; UpToDate-receives royalties.

Pranatharthi Haran Chandrasekar, MBBS, MD Professor, Chief of Infectious Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine

Pranatharthi Haran Chandrasekar, MBBS, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Society for Microbiology, International Immunocompromised Host Society, Infectious Diseases Society of America

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Vidya R Devarajan, MD Physician in Infectious Disease, Infectious Disease Consultants of N Kentucky, St Elizabeth Healthcare

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Bryan A T Lim, MD Chief Fellow, Department of Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Philippine General Hospital, University of the Philippines Manila College of Medicine, Philippines

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Wesley W Emmons, MD, FACP Assistant Professor, Department of Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University; Consulting Staff, Infectious Diseases Section, Department of Internal Medicine, Christiana Care, Newark, DE

Wesley W Emmons, MD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Medical Association, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Infectious Diseases Society of America, and International AIDS Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

• Print this section
• Print the entire contents of
• Print the entire contents of article