Dysphagia Differential Diagnoses

1. Palmer JB, DuChane AS. Phys Med Rehab Clin North Amer. Rehabilitation of swallowing disorders due to strokes. 1991. 2: 529.

2. Patel DA, Krishnaswami S, Steger E, et al. Economic and survival burden of dysphagia among inpatients in the United States. Dis Esophagus. 2018 Jan 1. 31 (1):1-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

3. Dodds WJ. Physiology of swallowing. Dysphagia. 1989. 3(4):171-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Dodrill P, Gosa MM. Pediatric Dysphagia: Physiology, Assessment, and Management. Ann Nutr Metab. 2015. 66 Suppl 5:24-31. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

5. Horton J, Atwood C, Gnagi S, Teufel R, Clemmens C. Temporal Trends of Pediatric Dysphagia in Hospitalized Patients. Dysphagia. 2018 Feb 20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

6. Baxter KJ, Baxter LM, Landry AM, Wulkan ML, Bhatia AM. Structural airway abnormalities contribute to dysphagia in children with esophageal atresia and tracheoesophageal fistula. J Pediatr Surg. 2018 Jan 31. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

7. Christiaanse ME, Mabe B, Russell G, Simeone TL, Fortunato J, Rubin B. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation is no more effective than usual care for the treatment of primary dysphagia in children. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2011 Jun. 46(6):559-65. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

8. Shaker R, Kern M, Bardan E, Taylor A, Stewart ET, Hoffmann RG, et al. Augmentation of deglutitive upper esophageal sphincter opening in the elderly by exercise. Am J Physiol. 1997 Jun. 272(6 Pt 1):G1518-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

9. Paik NJ, Kim SJ, Lee HJ, Jeon JY, Lim JY, Han TR. Movement of the hyoid bone and the epiglottis during swallowing in patients with dysphagia from different etiologies. J Electromyogr Kinesiol. 2008 Apr. 18(2):329-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. Veis SL, Logemann JA. Swallowing disorders in persons with cerebrovascular accident. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1985 Jun. 66(6):372-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

11. Logemann JA. Manual for the Videofluorographic Study of Swallowing. 2nd ed. Austin, Tex: Pro-Ed; 1993.

12. Pitts T, Bolser D, Rosenbek J, Troche M, Sapienza C. Voluntary cough production and swallow dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. Dysphagia. 2008 Sep. 23(3):297-301. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

13. Kawaguchi S, Takeuchi T, Inoue Y, et al. Exploratory Research on Latent Esophageal Motility Disorders in Dysphagia Patients. Digestion. 2017 Apr 11. 95 (4):269-74. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

14. Power ML, Hamdy S, Singh S. Deglutitive laryngeal closure in aspirating stroke patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. Sep 29 2006.

15. Rosenbek JC, Robbins JA, Roecker EB, Coyle JL, Wood JL. A penetration-aspiration scale. Dysphagia. 1996 Spring. 11(2):93-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

16. Kim H, Suh Y. Changes in the dysphagia and nutritional status of patients with brain injury. J Clin Nurs. 2017 Dec 21. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

17. Monteiro L, Souza-Machado A, Pinho P, Sampaio M, Nóbrega AC, Melo A. Swallowing impairment and pulmonary dysfunction in Parkinson's disease: The silent threats. J Neurol Sci. 2014 Feb 14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Andrenelli E, Galli FL, Gesuita R, et al. Swallowing impairments in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Myotonic Dystrophy type 1: Looking for the portrait of dysphagic patient in neuromuscular diseases. NeuroRehabilitation. 2018. 42 (1):93-102. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Suntrup-Krueger S, Kemmling A, Warnecke T, et al. The impact of lesion location on dysphagia incidence, pattern and complications in acute stroke. Part 2: Oropharyngeal residue, swallow and cough response, and pneumonia. Eur J Neurol. 2017 Apr 27. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Suntrup S, Kemmling A, Warnecke T, et al. The impact of lesion location on dysphagia incidence, pattern and complications in acute stroke. Part 1: dysphagia incidence, severity and aspiration. Eur J Neurol. 2015 May. 22 (5):832-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

21. Lee B, Woo P. Chronic cough as a sign of laryngeal sensory neuropathy: diagnosis and treatment. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2005 Apr. 114(4):253-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Clayton NA, Carnaby GD, Peters MJ, Ing AJ. Impaired laryngopharyngeal sensitivity in patients with COPD: The association with swallow function. Int J Speech Lang Pathol. 2014 Feb 24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. Greven KM, White DR, Browne JD, Williams DW 3rd, McGuirt WF Sr, D'Agostino RB Jr. Swallowing dysfunction is a common sequelae after chemoradiation for oropharynx carcinoma. Am J Clin Oncol. 2008 Jun. 31(3):209-12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

24. Mackenzie SH, Go M, Chadwick B, Thomas K, Fang J, Kuwada S, et al. Eosinophilic oesophagitis in patients presenting with dysphagia--a prospective analysis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2008 Nov 1. 28(9):1140-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Bussell SA, González-Fernández M. Racial disparities in the development of dysphagia after stroke: further evidence from the Medicare database. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2011 May. 92(5):737-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

26. Gonzalez-Fernandez M, Kuhlemeier KV, Palmer JB. Racial disparities in the development of dysphagia after stroke: analysis of the California (MIRCal) and New York (SPARCS) inpatient databases. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008 Jul. 89(7):1358-65. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

27. Kooi-van Es M, Erasmus CE, de Swart BJM, et al. Dysphagia and Dysarthria in Children with Neuromuscular Diseases, a Prevalence Study. J Neuromuscul Dis. 2020 Mar 11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Mann G, Hankey GJ, Cameron D. Swallowing function after stroke: prognosis and prognostic factors at 6 months. Stroke. 1999 Apr. 30(4):744-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. Barer DH. The natural history and functional consequences of dysphagia after hemispheric stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1989 Feb. 52(2):236-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

30. Masiero S, Pierobon R, Previato C, Gomiero E. Pneumonia in stroke patients with oropharyngeal dysphagia: a six-month follow-up study. Neurol Sci. 2008 Jun. 29(3):139-45. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Odderson IR, Keaton JC, McKenna BS. Swallow management in patients on an acute stroke pathway: quality is cost effective. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1995 Dec. 76(12):1130-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

32. Eglseer D, Halfens RJG, Schols JMGA, Lohrmann C. Dysphagia in Hospitalized Older Patients: Associated Factors and Nutritional Interventions. J Nutr Health Aging. 2018. 22 (1):103-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

33. Finestone HM, Greene-Finestone LS, Wilson ES, Teasell RW. Malnutrition in stroke patients on the rehabilitation service and at follow-up: prevalence and predictors. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1995 Apr. 76(4):310-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. Gourin CG, Couch ME, Johnson JT. Effect of weight loss on short-term outcomes and costs of care after head and neck cancer surgery. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2014 Feb. 123(2):101-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

35. Logemann JA. Evaluation and Treatment of Swallowing Disorders. 2nd ed. Austin, Tex: Pro-Ed; 1998.

36. Palmer JB, Drennan JC, Baba M. Evaluation and treatment of swallowing impairments. Am Fam Physician. 2000 Apr 15. 61(8):2453-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

37. Spieker MR. Evaluating dysphagia. Am Fam Physician. 2000 Jun 15. 61(12):3639-48. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. Kwek AB, Tan EK, Luman W. Dysphagia as a side effect of botulinum toxin injection. Med J Malaysia. 2004 Oct. 59(4):544-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

39. Lazarus C, Logemann JA. Swallowing disorders in closed head trauma patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1987 Feb. 68(2):79-84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

40. DePippo KL, Holas MA, Reding MJ. Validation of the 3-oz water swallow test for aspiration following stroke. Arch Neurol. 1992 Dec. 49(12):1259-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

41. Kumar VV, Amin MR. Evaluation of middle and distal esophageal diverticuli with transnasal esophagoscopy. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2005 Apr. 114(4):276-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

42. Splaingard ML, Hutchins B, Sulton LD, Chaudhuri G. Aspiration in rehabilitation patients: videofluoroscopy vs bedside clinical assessment. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1988 Aug. 69(8):637-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

43. Espitalier F, Fanous A, Aviv J, et al. International consensus (ICON) on assessment of oropharyngeal dysphagia. Eur Ann Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Dis. 2018 Feb. 135 (1S):S17-S21. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

44. Shem KL, Castillo K, Wong SL, Chang J, Kao MC, Kolakowsky-Hayner SA. Diagnostic accuracy of bedside swallow evaluation versus videofluoroscopy to assess dysphagia in individuals with tetraplegia. PM R. 2012 Apr. 4(4):283-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

45. Holt S, Miron SD, Diaz MC, Shields R, Ingraham D, Bellon EM. Scintigraphic measurement of oropharyngeal transit in man. Dig Dis Sci. 1990 Oct. 35(10):1198-204. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

46. Addington WR, Stephens RE, Gilliland K, Rodriguez M. Assessing the laryngeal cough reflex and the risk of developing pneumonia after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999 Feb. 80(2):150-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

47. Ertekin C, Aydogdu I, Yüceyar N, Tarlaci S, Kiylioglu N, Pehlivan M, et al. Electrodiagnostic methods for neurogenic dysphagia. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1998 Aug. 109(4):331-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

48. Noll SF, Bender CE, Marge CN. Rehabilitation of patients with swallowing disorders. Braddom RL, ed. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. WB Saunders: Philadelphia, Pa; 1996.

49. Paik NJ, Han TR. Critical review on the management for adult oropharyngeal dysphagia. Crit Rev Phys Rehabil Med. 2002. 14:247-72.

50. National Dysphagia Diet Task Force. National Dysphagia Diet: Standardization for Optimal Care. Chicago, Ill: American Dietetic Association; 2002.

51. Sewell RK, Bauman NM. Congenital cricopharyngeal achalasia: management with botulinum toxin before myotomy. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2005 May. 131(5):451-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

52. Sonies BC, Almajid P, Kleta R, Bernardini I, Gahl WA. Swallowing dysfunction in 101 patients with nephropathic cystinosis: benefit of long-term cysteamine therapy. Medicine (Baltimore). 2005 May. 84(3):137-46. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

53. Mann LL, Wong K. Development of an objective method for assessing viscosity of formulated foods and beverages for the dysphagic diet. J Am Diet Assoc. 1996 Jun. 96(6):585-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

54. Paik NJ, Han TR, Park JW, Lee EK, Park MS, Hwang IK. Categorization of dysphagia diets with the line spread test. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004 May. 85(5):857-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

55. Verschueren A, Monnier A, Attarian S, Lardillier D, Pouget J. Enteral and parenteral nutrition in the later stages of ALS: an observational study. Amyotroph Lateral Scler. 2009 Feb. 10(1):42-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

56. Choi JB, Shim SH, Yang JE, Kim HD, Lee DH, Park JS. Effects of Shaker exercise in stroke survivors with oropharyngeal dysphagia. NeuroRehabilitation. 2017. 41 (4):753-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

57. Fraser C, Power M, Hamdy S, Rothwell J, Hobday D, Hollander I, et al. Driving plasticity in human adult motor cortex is associated with improved motor function after brain injury. Neuron. 2002 May 30. 34(5):831-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

58. Freed ML, Freed L, Chatburn RL, Christian M. Electrical stimulation for swallowing disorders caused by stroke. Respir Care. 2001 May. 46(5):466-74. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

59. Leelamanit V, Limsakul C, Geater A. Synchronized electrical stimulation in treating pharyngeal dysphagia. Laryngoscope. 2002 Dec. 112(12):2204-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

60. Sproson L, Pownall S, Enderby P, Freeman J. Combined electrical stimulation and exercise for swallow rehabilitation post-stroke: a pilot randomized control trial. Int J Lang Commun Disord. 2017 Dec 30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

61. Schultheiss C, Nusser-Müller-Busch R, Seidl RO. The semisolid bolus swallow test for clinical diagnosis of oropharyngeal dysphagia: a prospective randomised study. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2011 Dec. 268(12):1837-44. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

62. Ho CH, Lin WC, Hsu YF, Lee IH, Hung YC. One-Year Risk of Pneumonia and Mortality in Patients with Poststroke Dysphagia: A Nationwide Population-Based Study. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2018 Jan 25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

63. Campbell-Taylor I, Nadon GW, Sclater AL, Fisher R, Harris-Kwan J, Rosen I. Oro-esophageal tube feeding: an alternative to nasogastric or gastrostomy tubes. Dysphagia. 1988. 2(4):220-1. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

64. Park RH, Allison MC, Lang J, Spence E, Morris AJ, Danesh BJ, et al. Randomised comparison of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy and nasogastric tube feeding in patients with persisting neurological dysphagia. BMJ. 1992 May 30. 304(6839):1406-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

65. Gomes CA Jr, Lustosa SA, Matos D, Andriolo RB, Waisberg DR, Waisberg J. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy versus nasogastric tube feeding for adults with swallowing disturbances. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Mar 14. 3:CD008096. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

66. Han TR, Paik NJ, Park JW, Kwon BS. The prediction of persistent dysphagia beyond six months after stroke. Dysphagia. 2008 Mar. 23(1):59-64. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

67. Han TR, Paik NJ, Park JW. Quantifying swallowing function after stroke: A functional dysphagia scale based on videofluoroscopic studies. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001 May. 82(5):677-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

68. Dziewas R, Warnecke T, Olenberg S, Teismann I, Zimmermann J, Kramer C, et al. Towards a basic endoscopic assessment of swallowing in acute stroke - development and evaluation of a simple dysphagia score. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2008. 26(1):41-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

69. [Guideline] McRae J, Smith C, Beeke S, Emmanuel A, Members of the Delphi expert panel group. Development of a swallowing risk screening tool and best practice recommendations for the management of oropharyngeal dysphagia following acute cervical spinal cord injury: an international multi-professional Delphi consensus. Disabil Rehabil. 2021 Dec 14. 1-14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

Nam-Jong Paik, MD, PhD Chair, CardioCerebralVascular Center, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital; Professor, Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Segun Toyin Dawodu, JD, MD, MS, MBA, LLM, FAAPMR, FAANEM Attending Interventional Physiatrist, Wellspan Health

Segun Toyin Dawodu, JD, MD, MS, MBA, LLM, FAAPMR, FAANEM is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Sports Medicine, American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Royal College of Surgeons of England, American Association of Neuromuscular and Electrodiagnostic Medicine, American Medical Association, American Medical Informatics Association, Association of Academic Physiatrists, International Society of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Elizabeth A Moberg-Wolff, MD Medical Director, Pediatric Rehabilitation Medicine Associates

Elizabeth A Moberg-Wolff, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy for Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Medicine, American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Segun T Dawodu, MD, JD, MBA, LLM, FAAPMR, FAANEM Associate Professor of Rehabilitation Medicine and Interventional Pain Medicine, Albany Medical College

Segun T Dawodu, MD, JD, MBA, LLM, FAAPMR, FAANEM is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, American Association of Neuromuscular and Electrodiagnostic Medicine, American College of Sports Medicine, American Medical Association, American Medical Informatics Association, Association of Academic Physiatrists, International Society of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, and Royal College of Surgeons of England

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Everett C Hills, MD, MS Assistant Professor of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Assistant Professor of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, Penn State Milton S Hershey Medical Center and Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine

Everett C Hills, MD, MS is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Disability Evaluating Physicians, American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, American College of Physician Executives, American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine, American Medical Association, American Society of Neurorehabilitation, Association of Academic Physiatrists, and Pennsylvania Medical Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Milton J Klein, DO, MBA Consulting Physiatrist, Heritage Valley Health System-Sewickley Hospital and Ohio Valley General Hospital

Milton J Klein, DO, MBA is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Disability Evaluating Physicians, American Academy of Medical Acupuncture, American Academy of Osteopathy, American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, American Medical Association, American Osteopathic Association, American Osteopathic College of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, American Pain Society, and Pennsylvania Medical Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Richard Salcido, MD Chairman, Erdman Professor of Rehabilitation, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine

Richard Salcido, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pain Medicine, American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, American College of Physician Executives, American Medical Association, and American Paraplegia Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

• Print this section
• Print the entire contents of
• Print the entire contents of article