Trichomoniasis Questions & Answers

1. Forna F, Gülmezoglu AM. Interventions for treating trichomoniasis in women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003. CD000218. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

2. Van der Pol B. Trichomonas vaginalis infection: the most prevalent nonviral sexually transmitted infection receives the least public health attention. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Jan 1. 44(1):23-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

3. Wang CC, McClelland RS, Reilly M, Overbaugh J, Emery SR, Mandaliya K, et al. The effect of treatment of vaginal infections on shedding of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Infect Dis. 2001 Apr 1. 183(7):1017-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Ghosh I, Muwonge R, Mittal S, Banerjee D, Kundu P, Mandal R, et al. Association between high risk human papillomavirus infection and co-infection with Candida spp. and Trichomonas vaginalis in women with cervical premalignant and malignant lesions. J Clin Virol. 2017 Feb. 87:43-48. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

5. Kaul R, Nagelkerke NJ, Kimani J, Ngugi E, Bwayo JJ, Macdonald KS, et al. Prevalent herpes simplex virus type 2 infection is associated with altered vaginal flora and an increased susceptibility to multiple sexually transmitted infections. J Infect Dis. 2007 Dec 1. 196 (11):1692-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

6. Soper D. Trichomoniasis: under control or undercontrolled?. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Jan. 190(1):281-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

7. Smith LM, Wang M, Zangwill K, Yeh S. Trichomonas vaginalis infection in a premature newborn. J Perinatol. 2002 Sep. 22 (6):502-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

8. Temesvári P, Kerekes A, Tege A, Szarka K. Demonstration of Trichomonas vaginalis in tracheal aspirates in infants with early respiratory failure. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2002 May. 11 (5):347-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

9. Francis SC, Kent CK, Klausner JD, Rauch L, Kohn R, Hardick A, et al. Prevalence of rectal Trichomonas vaginalis and Mycoplasma genitalium in male patients at the San Francisco STD clinic, 2005-2006. Sex Transm Dis. 2008 Sep. 35(9):797-800. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. Duboucher C, Pierce RJ, Capron M, Dei-Cas E, Viscogliosi E. Recent advances in pulmonary trichomonosis. Trends Parasitol. 2008 May. 24 (5):201-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

11. Workowski KA, Bolan GA, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015 Jun 5. 64 (RR-03):1-137. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

12. Krieger JN, Tam MR, Stevens CE, Nielsen IO, Hale J, Kiviat NB, et al. Diagnosis of trichomoniasis. Comparison of conventional wet-mount examination with cytologic studies, cultures, and monoclonal antibody staining of direct specimens. JAMA. 1988 Feb 26. 259(8):1223-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

13. Radonjic IV, Dzamic AM, Mitrovic SM, Arsic Arsenijevic VS, Popadic DM, Kranjcic Zec IF. Diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis infection: The sensitivities and specificities of microscopy, culture and PCR assay. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2006 May 1. 126(1):116-20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Expedited Partner Therapy. CDC.gov. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/std/ept/default.htm. 9-20-2018; Accessed: 7-28-2019.

15. Eckert J. Protozoa. In: Kayser FH, Bienz KA, Eckert J, et al, eds. Color Atlas of Medical Microbiology. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Thieme; 2005:

16. Schwebke JR, Burgess D. Trichomoniasis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004 Oct. 17(4):794-803, table of contents. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

17. Carter-Wicker K, Utuama O, Omole F. Can trichomoniasis cause pharyngitis? A case report. SAGE Open Med Case Rep. 2016. 4:2050313X16682132. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

18. Schwandt A, Williams C, Beigi RH. Perinatal transmission of Trichomonas vaginalis: a case report. J Reprod Med. 2008 Jan. 53 (1):59-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

19. Trintis J, Epie N, Boss R, Riedel S. Neonatal Trichomonas vaginalis infection: a case report and review of literature. Int J STD AIDS. 2010 Aug. 21(8):606-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Magnus M, Clark R, Myers L, Farley T, Kissinger PJ. Trichomonas vaginalis among HIV-Infected women: are immune status or protease inhibitor use associated with subsequent T. vaginalis positivity?. Sex Transm Dis. 2003 Nov. 30(11):839-43. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

21. Hobbs MM, Kazembe P, Reed AW, Miller WC, Nkata E, Zimba D, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis as a cause of urethritis in Malawian men. Sex Transm Dis. 1999 Aug. 26(7):381-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Petrin D, Delgaty K, Bhatt R, Garber G. Clinical and microbiological aspects of Trichomonas vaginalis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1998 Apr. 11(2):300-17. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

23. Dan M, Sobel JD. Trichomoniasis as seen in a chronic vaginitis clinic. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol. 1996. 4(2):77-84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

24. Helms DJ, Mosure DJ, Metcalf CA, Douglas JM Jr, Malotte CK, Paul SM, et al. Risk factors for prevalent and incident Trichomonas vaginalis among women attending three sexually transmitted disease clinics. Sex Transm Dis. 2008 May. 35 (5):484-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

25. Miller M, Liao Y, Gomez AM, Gaydos CA, D'Mellow D. Factors associated with the prevalence and incidence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among African American women in New York city who use drugs. J Infect Dis. 2008 Feb 15. 197(4):503-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

26. Weinstock H, Berman S, Cates W Jr. Sexually transmitted diseases among American youth: incidence and prevalence estimates, 2000. Perspect Sex Reprod Health. 2004 Jan-Feb. 36(1):6-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

27. Gerbase AC, Rowley JT, Mertens TE. Global epidemiology of sexually transmitted diseases. Lancet. 1998. 351 Suppl 3:2-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Bachmann LH, Hobbs MM, Seña AC, Sobel JD, Schwebke JR, Krieger JN, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis genital infections: progress and challenges. Clin Infect Dis. 2011 Dec. 53 Suppl 3:S160-72. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. Goyal M, Hayes K, McGowan KL, Fein JA, Mollen C. Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection in symptomatic adolescent females presenting to a pediatric emergency department. Acad Emerg Med. 2011 Jul. 18(7):763-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

30. Sobel JD. What's new in bacterial vaginosis and trichomoniasis?. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2005 Jun. 19(2):387-406. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Garcia A, Exposto F, Prieto E, Lopes M, Duarte A, Correia da Silva R. Association of Trichomonas vaginalis with sociodemographic factors and other STDs among female inmates in Lisbon. Int J STD AIDS. 2004 Sep. 15(9):615-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

32. Shuter J, Bell D, Graham D, Holbrook KA, Bellin EY. Rates of and risk factors for trichomoniasis among pregnant inmates in New York City. Sex Transm Dis. 1998 Jul. 25(6):303-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

33. Four curable sexually transmitted infections still affect millions worldwide. The World Health Organization. Available at https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/curable-stis/en/. 6/62019; Accessed: 8/17/2019.

34. Klouman E, Masenga EJ, Klepp KI, Sam NE, Nkya W, Nkya C. HIV and reproductive tract infections in a total village population in rural Kilimanjaro, Tanzania: women at increased risk. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1997 Feb 1. 14(2):163-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

35. Laga M, Manoka A, Kivuvu M, Malele B, Tuliza M, Nzila N, et al. Non-ulcerative sexually transmitted diseases as risk factors for HIV-1 transmission in women: results from a cohort study. AIDS. 1993 Jan. 7(1):95-102. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

36. Leroy V, De Clercq A, Ladner J, Bogaerts J, Van de Perre P, Dabis F. Should screening of genital infections be part of antenatal care in areas of high HIV prevalence? A prospective cohort study from Kigali, Rwanda, 1992-1993. The Pregnancy and HIV (EGE) Group. Genitourin Med. 1995 Aug. 71(4):207-11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

37. Miller WC, Swygard H, Hobbs MM, Ford CA, Handcock MS, Morris M, et al. The prevalence of trichomoniasis in young adults in the United States. Sex Transm Dis. 2005 Oct. 32(10):593-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. Sutton M, Sternberg M, Koumans EH, McQuillan G, Berman S, Markowitz L. The prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among reproductive-age women in the United States, 2001-2004. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Nov 15. 45(10):1319-26. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

39. Huppert JS. Trichomoniasis in teens: an update. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2009 Oct. 21(5):371-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

40. Joyner JL, Douglas JM Jr, Ragsdale S, Foster M, Judson FN. Comparative prevalence of infection with Trichomonas vaginalis among men attending a sexually transmitted diseases clinic. Sex Transm Dis. 2000 Apr. 27(4):236-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

41. Danesh IS, Stephen JM, Gorbach J. Neonatal Trichomonas vaginalis infection. J Emerg Med. 1995 Jan-Feb. 13(1):51-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

42. Schwebke JR, Hook EW 3rd. High rates of Trichomonas vaginalis among men attending a sexually transmitted diseases clinic: implications for screening and urethritis management. J Infect Dis. 2003 Aug 1. 188(3):465-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

43. Krieger JN. Trichomoniasis in men: old issues and new data. Sex Transm Dis. 1995 Mar-Apr. 22(2):83-96. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

44. Kaydos-Daniels SC, Miller WC, Hoffman I, Price MA, Martinson F, Chilongozi D, et al. The use of specimens from various genitourinary sites in men, to detect Trichomonas vaginalis infection. J Infect Dis. 2004 May 15. 189(10):1926-31. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

45. Hobbs MM, Lapple DM, Lawing LF, Schwebke JR, Cohen MS, Swygard H, et al. Methods for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in the male partners of infected women: implications for control of trichomoniasis. J Clin Microbiol. 2006 Nov. 44(11):3994-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

46. Kissinger P, Adamski A. Trichomoniasis and HIV interactions: a review. Sex Transm Infect. 2013 Sep. 89 (6):426-33. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

47. Daugherty M, Glynn K, Byler T. Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis Infection Among US Males, 2013-2016. Clin Infect Dis. 2019 Jan 18. 68 (3):460-465. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

48. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines, 2010: Diseases Characterized by Vaginal Discharge. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/std/treatment/2010/vaginal-discharge.htm#a2. Accessed: June 1, 2012.

49. Peterman TA, Tian LH, Metcalf CA, et al. High incidence of new sexually transmitted infections in the year following a sexually transmitted infection: a case for rescreening. Ann Intern Med. 2006 Oct 17. 145(8):564-72. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

50. Schwebke JR, Desmond RA. A randomized controlled trial of partner notification methods for prevention of trichomoniasis in women. Sex Transm Dis. 2010 Jun. 37 (6):392-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

51. Kissinger P, Schmidt N, Mohammed H, Leichliter JS, Gift TL, Meadors B, et al. Patient-delivered partner treatment for Trichomonas vaginalis infection: a randomized controlled trial. Sex Transm Dis. 2006 Jul. 33 (7):445-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

52. Wølner-Hanssen P, Krieger JN, Stevens CE, Kiviat NB, Koutsky L, Critchlow C, et al. Clinical manifestations of vaginal trichomoniasis. JAMA. 1989 Jan 27. 261(4):571-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

53. Guenthner PC, Secor WE, Dezzutti CS. Trichomonas vaginalis-induced epithelial monolayer disruption and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) replication: implications for the sexual transmission of HIV-1. Infect Immun. 2005 Jul. 73 (7):4155-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

54. Thurman AR, Doncel GF. Innate immunity and inflammatory response to Trichomonas vaginalis and bacterial vaginosis: relationship to HIV acquisition. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2011 Feb. 65 (2):89-98. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

55. Soper DE, Bump RC, Hurt WG. Bacterial vaginosis and trichomoniasis vaginitis are risk factors for cuff cellulitis after abdominal hysterectomy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990 Sep. 163(3):1016-21; discussion 1021-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

56. Grodstein F, Goldman MB, Ryan L, Cramer DW. Relation of female infertility to consumption of caffeinated beverages. Am J Epidemiol. 1993 Jun 15. 137(12):1353-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

57. [Guideline] Workowski KA, Berman SM. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2006. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006 Aug 4. 55:1-94. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

58. Gumbo FZ, Duri K, Kandawasvika GQ, Kurewa NE, Mapingure MP, Munjoma MW, et al. Risk factors of HIV vertical transmission in a cohort of women under a PMTCT program at three peri-urban clinics in a resource-poor setting. J Perinatol. 2010 Nov. 30 (11):717-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

59. Fouts AC, Kraus SJ. Trichomonas vaginalis: reevaluation of its clinical presentation and laboratory diagnosis. J Infect Dis. 1980 Feb. 141(2):137-143. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

60. Anderson BL, Cosentino LA, Simhan HN, Hillier SL. Systemic immune response to Trichomonas vaginalis infection during pregnancy. Sex Transm Dis. 2007 Jun. 34(6):392-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

61. Bell C, Hough E, Smith A, Greene L. Targeted screening for Trichomonas vaginalis in women, a pH-based approach. Int J STD AIDS. 2007 Jun. 18(6):402-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

62. Ryan KA, Zekeng L, Roddy RE, et al. Prevalence and Prediction of Sexually Transmitted Disease Among Sex Workers in Cameroon. Int. H STD AIDS. 1998;9:403-7:

63. Trichomoniasis: Fact Sheet. The Centers for Disease Control. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/std/trichomonas/stdfact-trichomoniasis.htm. 1/31/2017; Accessed: 8/17/2019.

64. Kreiger JN. Trichomoniasis in Men: Old Issues and New Data. Sex Trans Dis. 1995;22:83-96.:

65. Martínez-García F, Regadera J, Mayer R, Sanchez S, Nistal M. Protozoan infections in the male genital tract. J Urol. 1996 Aug. 156(2 Pt 1):340-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

66. Chesson HW, Blandford JM, Pinkerton SD. Estimates of the annual number and cost of new HIV infections among women attributable to trichomoniasis in the United States. Sex Transm Dis. 2004 Sep. 31(9):547-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

67. Kissinger P, Amedee A, Clark RA, Dumestre J, Theall KP, Myers L, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis treatment reduces vaginal HIV-1 shedding. Sex Transm Dis. 2009 Jan. 36(1):11-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

68. Watts DH, Fazzari M, Minkoff H, Hillier SL, Sha B, Glesby M, et al. Effects of bacterial vaginosis and other genital infections on the natural history of human papillomavirus infection in HIV-1-infected and high-risk HIV-1-uninfected women. J Infect Dis. 2005 Apr 1. 191(7):1129-39. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

69. Viikki M, Pukkala E, Nieminen P, Hakama M. Gynaecological infections as risk determinants of subsequent cervical neoplasia. Acta Oncol. 2000. 39(1):71-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

70. Soper DE, Bump RC, Hurt WG. Bacterial vaginosis and trichomoniasis vaginitis are risk factors for cuff cellulitis after abdominal hysterectomy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990 Sep. 163(3):1016-21; discussion 1021-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

71. Zalonis CA, Pillay A, Secor W, Humburg B, Aber R. Rare case of trichomonal peritonitis. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011 Jul. 17(7):1312-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

72. Cotch MF, Pastorek JG 2nd, Nugent RP, Hillier SL, Gibbs RS, Martin DH, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis associated with low birth weight and preterm delivery. The Vaginal Infections and Prematurity Study Group. Sex Transm Dis. 1997 Jul. 24(6):353-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

73. Dopkins Broecker JE, Huppert JS. Trichomoniasis in adolescents: routine screening is advised for your patients at risk. Contemp Pediatr. Sept 2011;28-46.

74. Huppert JS, Hesse EA, Bernard MA, Xiao Y, Huang B, Gaydos CA, et al. Acceptability of self-testing for trichomoniasis increases with experience. Sex Transm Infect. 2011 Oct. 87(6):494-500. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

75. Gaydos CA, Hsieh YH, Barnes M, Quinn N, Agreda P, Jett-Goheen M, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis infection in women who submit self-obtained vaginal samples after internet recruitment. Sex Transm Dis. 2011 Sep. 38 (9):828-32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

76. James JA, Thomason JL, Gelbart SM, Osypowski P, Kaiser P, Hanson L. Is trichomoniasis often associated with bacterial vaginosis in pregnant adolescents?. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1992 Mar. 166(3):859-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

77. Thomason JL, Gelbart SM, Sobun JF, Schulien MB, Hamilton PR. Comparison of four methods to detect Trichomonas vaginalis. J Clin Microbiol. 1988 Sep. 26(9):1869-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

78. Schwebke JR, Gaydos CA, Davis T, Marrazzo J, Furgerson D, Taylor SN, et al. Clinical Evaluation of the Cepheid Xpert TV Assay for Detection of Trichomonas vaginalis with Prospectively Collected Specimens from Men and Women. J Clin Microbiol. 2018 Feb. 56 (2):[QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

79. Nye MB, Schwebke JR, Body BA. Comparison of APTIMA Trichomonas vaginalis transcription-mediated amplification to wet mount microscopy, culture, and polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of trichomoniasis in men and women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2009 Feb. 200(2):188.e1-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

80. Brown HL, Fuller DA, Davis TE, Schwebke JR, Hillier SL. Evaluation of the Affirm Ambient Temperature Transport System for the detection and identification of Trichomonas vaginalis, Gardnerella vaginalis, and Candida species from vaginal fluid specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 2001 Sep. 39(9):3197-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

81. Hollman D, Coupey SM, Fox AS, Herold BC. Screening for Trichomonas vaginalis in high-risk adolescent females with a new transcription-mediated nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT): associations with ethnicity, symptoms, and prior and current STIs. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2010 Oct. 23(5):312-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

82. Andrea SB, Chapin KC. Comparison of Aptima Trichomonas vaginalis transcription-mediated amplification assay and BD affirm VPIII for detection of T. vaginalis in symptomatic women: performance parameters and epidemiological implications. J Clin Microbiol. 2011 Mar. 49(3):866-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

83. BD Viper™ XTR System. Becton, Dickinson and Company. Available at https://www.bd.com/en-uk/products/molecular-diagnostics/molecular-systems/viper-system. 1/1/2019; Accessed: 8/17/2019.

84. Rank EL, Sautter RL, Beavis KG, Harris S, Jones S, Drechsel R, et al. A two-site analytical evaluation of the BD Viper System with XTR Technology in Nonextracted Mode and Extracted Mode with seeded simulated specimens. J Lab Autom. 2011 Aug. 16 (4):271-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

85. Huppert JS, Batteiger BE, Braslins P, Feldman JA, Hobbs MM, Sankey HZ, et al. Use of an immunochromatographic assay for rapid detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in vaginal specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 2005 Feb. 43(2):684-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

86. Huppert JS, Mortensen JE, Reed JL, Kahn JA, Rich KD, Miller WC, et al. Rapid antigen testing compares favorably with transcription-mediated amplification assay for the detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in young women. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Jul 15. 45(2):194-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

87. Campbell L, Woods V, Lloyd T, Elsayed S, Church DL. Evaluation of the OSOM Trichomonas rapid test versus wet preparation examination for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis vaginitis in specimens from women with a low prevalence of infection. J Clin Microbiol. 2008 Oct. 46(10):3467-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

88. Quidel Corporation. Solana Trichomonas Assay. Quidel. Available at https://www.quidel.com/molecular-diagnostics/solana-trichomonas-assay. 1/1/2019; Accessed: 8/17/2019.

89. Gaydos CA, Schwebke J, Dombrowski J, Marrazzo J, Coleman J, Silver B, et al. Clinical performance of the Solana® Point-of-Care Trichomonas Assay from clinician-collected vaginal swabs and urine specimens from symptomatic and asymptomatic women. Expert Rev Mol Diagn. 2017 Mar. 17 (3):303-306. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

90. Xpert TV. Cepheid. Available at http://www.cepheid.com/us/cepheid-solutions/clinical-ivd-tests/sexual-health/xpert-tv. 1/1/2019; Accessed: 8/17/2019.

91. Schwebke JR, Gaydos CA, Davis T, Marrazzo J, Furgerson D, Taylor SN, et al. Clinical Evaluation of the Cepheid Xpert TV Assay for Detection of Trichomonas vaginalis with Prospectively Collected Specimens from Men and Women. J Clin Microbiol. 2018 Feb. 56 (2):[QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

92. Diaz N, Dessì D, Dessole S, Fiori PL, Rappelli P. Rapid detection of coinfections by Trichomonas vaginalis, Mycoplasma hominis, and Ureaplasma urealyticum by a new multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2010 May. 67(1):30-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

93. Simpson P, Higgins G, Qiao M, Waddell R, Kok T. Real-time PCRs for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis beta-tubulin and 18S rRNA genes in female genital specimens. J Med Microbiol. 2007 Jun. 56:772-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

94. Madico G, Quinn TC, Rompalo A, McKee KT Jr, Gaydos CA. Diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis infection by PCR using vaginal swab samples. J Clin Microbiol. 1998 Nov. 36(11):3205-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

95. Mayta H, Gilman RH, Calderon MM, Gottlieb A, Soto G, Tuero I, et al. 18S ribosomal DNA-based PCR for diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis. J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Jul. 38(7):2683-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

96. Van Der Pol B, Kraft CS, Williams JA. Use of an adaptation of a commercially available PCR assay aimed at diagnosis of chlamydia and gonorrhea to detect Trichomonas vaginalis in urogenital specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 2006 Feb. 44(2):366-73. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

97. Schwebke JR, Lawing LF. Improved detection by DNA amplification of Trichomonas vaginalis in males. J Clin Microbiol. 2002 Oct. 40(10):3681-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

98. Nabweyambo S, Kakaire O, Sowinski S, Okeng A, Ojiambo H, Kimeze J, et al. Very low sensitivity of wet mount microscopy compared to PCR against culture in the diagnosis of vaginal trichomoniasis in Uganda: a cross sectional study. BMC Res Notes. 2017 Jul 6. 10 (1):259. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

99. Kingston MA, Bansal D, Carlin EM. Shelf life' of Trichomonas vaginalis. Int J STD AIDS. 2003 Jan. 14(1):28-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

100. Kissinger PJ, Dumestre J, Clark RA, Wenthold L, Mohammed H, Hagensee ME, et al. Vaginal swabs versus lavage for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis and bacterial vaginosis among HIV-positive women. Sex Transm Dis. 2005 Apr. 32(4):227-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

101. Seattle STD/HIV Prevention Training Network. Examination of Vaginal Wet Preps. Available at http://depts.washington.edu/nnptc/online_training/wet_preps_video.html. Accessed: Dec 30, 2005.

102. Patel SR, Wiese W, Patel SC, Ohl C, Byrd JC, Estrada CA. Systematic review of diagnostic tests for vaginal trichomoniasis. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol. 2000. 8(5-6):248-57. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

103. Ohlemeyer CL, Hornberger LL, Lynch DA, Swierkosz EM. Diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis in adolescent females: InPouch TV culture versus wet-mount microscopy. J Adolesc Health. 1998 Mar. 22(3):205-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

104. Lobo TT, Feijó G, Carvalho SE, Costa PL, Chagas C, Xavier J, et al. A comparative evaluation of the Papanicolaou test for the diagnosis of trichomoniasis. Sex Transm Dis. 2003 Sep. 30(9):694-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

105. Lara-Torre E, Pinkerton JS. Accuracy of detection of trichomonas vaginalis organisms on a liquid-based papanicolaou smear. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Feb. 188(2):354-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

106. Wiese W, Patel SR, Patel SC, Ohl CA, Estrada CA. A meta-analysis of the Papanicolaou smear and wet mount for the diagnosis of vaginal trichomoniasis. Am J Med. 2000 Mar. 108(4):301-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

107. Amsel R, Totten PA, Spiegel CA, Chen KC, Eschenbach D, Holmes KK. Nonspecific vaginitis. Diagnostic criteria and microbial and epidemiologic associations. Am J Med. 1983 Jan. 74(1):14-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

108. Schwebke JR, Desmond RA. A randomized controlled trial of partner notification methods for prevention of trichomoniasis in women. Sex Transm Dis. 2010 Jun. 37(6):392-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

109. Kissinger P, Mena L, Levison J, et al. A randomized treatment trial: single versus 7-day dose of metronidazole for the treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis among HIV-infected women. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010 Dec 15. 55(5):565-71. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

110. Kissinger P, Secor WE, Leichliter JS, Clark RA, Schmidt N, Curtin E, et al. Early repeated infections with Trichomonas vaginalis among HIV-positive and HIV-negative women. Clin Infect Dis. 2008 Apr 1. 46(7):994-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

111. Niccolai LM, Kopicko JJ, Kassie A, Petros H, Clark RA, Kissinger P. Incidence and predictors of reinfection with Trichomonas vaginalis in HIV-infected women. Sex Transm Dis. 2000 May. 27(5):284-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

112. Klebanoff MA, Carey JC, Hauth JC, et al. Failure of metronidazole to prevent preterm delivery among pregnant women with asymptomatic Trichomonas vaginalis infection. N Engl J Med. 2001 Aug 16. 345(7):487-93. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

113. Schwebke JR, Desmond RA. Tinidazole vs metronidazole for the treatment of bacterial vaginosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2011 Mar. 204 (3):211.e1-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

114. Anjaeyulu R, Gupte SA, Desai DB. Single-dose treatment of trichomonal vaginitis: a comparison of tinidazole and metronidazole. J Int Med Res. 1977. 5 (6):438-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

115. Edwards DI. Mechanisms of selective toxicity of metronidazole and other nitroimidazole drugs. Br J Vener Dis. 1980 Oct. 56 (5):285-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

116. Andersson KE. Pharmacokinetics of nitroimidazoles. Spectrum of adverse reactions. Scand J Infect Dis Suppl. 1981. 26:60-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

117. Cudmore SL, Delgaty KL, Hayward-McClelland SF, Petrin DP, Garber GE. Treatment of infections caused by metronidazole-resistant Trichomonas vaginalis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004 Oct. 17(4):783-93, table of contents. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

118. Mammen-Tobin A, Wilson JD. Management of metronidazole-resistant Trichomonas vaginalis--a new approach. Int J STD AIDS. 2005 Jul. 16(7):488-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

119. Passmore CM, McElnay JC, Rainey EA, D'Arcy PF. Metronidazole excretion in human milk and its effect on the suckling neonate. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1988 Jul. 26 (1):45-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

120. [Guideline] United Kingdom National Health Service. Metronidazole- is it safe to use with breastfeeding?. Specialist Pharmacy Services. Available at https://www.sps.nhs.uk/articles/metronidazole-is-it-safe-to-use-with-breastfeeding/. 11/28/2019; Accessed: 8/19/2019.

121. Das S, Huengsberg M, Shahmanesh M. Treatment failure of vaginal trichomoniasis in clinical practice. Int J STD AIDS. 2005 Apr. 16(4):284-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

122. Diav-Citrin O, Shechtman S, Gotteiner T, Arnon J, Ornoy A. Pregnancy outcome after gestational exposure to metronidazole: a prospective controlled cohort study. Teratology. 2001 May. 63(5):186-92. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

123. Burtin P, Taddio A, Ariburnu O, Einarson TR, Koren G. Safety of metronidazole in pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995 Feb. 172(2 Pt 1):525-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

124. Carey JC and Klebanoff M, for the NICHD MFMU Network. Metronidazole treatment increased the risk of preterm birth in asymptomatic women with Trichomonas. Presented at the 20th Annual Meeting of the Society of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Miami, FL, February 2000.

125. Mann JR, McDermott S, Zhou L, Barnes TL, Hardin J. Treatment of trichomoniasis in pregnancy and preterm birth: an observational study. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2009 Apr. 18(4):493-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

126. Moodley P, Wilkinson D, Connolly C, Moodley J, Sturm AW. Trichomonas vaginalis is associated with pelvic inflammatory disease in women infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 2002 Feb 15. 34(4):519-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

127. Muzny CA, Schwebke JR, Nyirjesy P, Kaufman G, Mena LA, Lazenby GB, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Single Oral Dosing of Secnidazole for Trichomoniasis in Women: Results of a Phase 3, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Delayed-Treatment Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2021 Mar 26. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

128. duBouchet L, Spence MR, Rein MF, Danzig MR, McCormack WM. Multicenter comparison of clotrimazole vaginal tablets, oral metronidazole, and vaginal suppositories containing sulfanilamide, aminacrine hydrochloride, and allantoin in the treatment of symptomatic trichomoniasis. Sex Transm Dis. 1997 Mar. 24(3):156-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

129. American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Metronidazole. MedlinePlus. Available at https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a689011.html. 12/15/2017; Accessed: 8/19/2019.

130. Bouchemal K, Bories C, Loiseau PM. Strategies for Prevention and Treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis Infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2017 Jul. 30 (3):811-825. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

131. Soper DE, Shoupe D, Shangold GA, Shangold MM, Gutmann J, Mercer L. Prevention of vaginal trichomoniasis by compliant use of the female condom. Sex Transm Dis. 1993 May-Jun. 20 (3):137-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

132. Schmid G, Narcisi E, Mosure D, Secor WE, Higgins J, Moreno H. Prevalence of metronidazole-resistant Trichomonas vaginalis in a gynecology clinic. J Reprod Med. 2001 Jun. 46 (6):545-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

133. Meites E, Gaydos CA, Hobbs MM, Kissinger P, Nyirjesy P, Schwebke JR, et al. A Review of Evidence-Based Care of Symptomatic Trichomoniasis and Asymptomatic Trichomonas vaginalis Infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2015 Dec 15. 61 Suppl 8:S837-48. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

Darvin Scott Smith, MD, MSc, DTM&H, FIDSA Chief of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaiser Permanente Medical Group

Darvin Scott Smith, MD, MSc, DTM&H, FIDSA is a member of the following medical societies: American Medical Association, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Infectious Diseases Society of America, International Society of Travel Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

J Cole Holderman Student Director, Student Researcher, Huntington's Outreach Project for Education at Stanford (HOPES); Student Researcher, Yang Laboratory at Stanford Medical School

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Kristel T Bugayong Freelance Medical Illustrator

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Michael Stuart Bronze, MD David Ross Boyd Professor and Chairman, Department of Medicine, Stewart G Wolf Endowed Chair in Internal Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Science Center; Master of the American College of Physicians; Fellow, Infectious Diseases Society of America; Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, London

Michael Stuart Bronze, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College of Physicians, American Medical Association, Association of Professors of Medicine, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Oklahoma State Medical Association, Southern Society for Clinical Investigation

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Natalia Ramos, MD, MPH Clinical Assistant Professor, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Judith C Brillman, MD Professor Emerita, Emergency Medicine Department, University of New Mexico School of Medicine

Judith C Brillman, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Emergency Medicine, American Association of Women Emergency Physicians, and Society for Academic Emergency Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

John L Brusch, MD, FACP Assistant Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School; Consulting Staff, Department of Medicine and Infectious Disease Service, Cambridge Health Alliance

John L Brusch, MD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians and Infectious Diseases Society of America

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Benjamin W Friedman, MD Staff Physician, Department of Emergency Medicine, Jacobi/Montefiore Medical Centers

Benjamin W Friedman, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Emergency Medicine and Society for Academic Emergency Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Theodore J Gaeta, DO, MPH, FACEP Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Emergency Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College; Vice Chairman and Program Director of Emergency Medicine Residency Program, Department of Emergency Medicine, New York Methodist Hospital; Academic Chair, Adjunct Professor, Department of Emergency Medicine, St George's University School of Medicine

Theodore J Gaeta, DO, MPH, FACEP is a member of the following medical societies: Alliance for Clinical Education, American College of Emergency Physicians, Clerkship Directors in Emergency Medicine, Council of Emergency Medicine Residency Directors, New York Academy of Medicine, and Society for Academic Emergency Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Rick Kulkarni, MD Attending Physician, Department of Emergency Medicine, Cambridge Health Alliance, Division of Emergency Medicine, Harvard Medical School

Rick Kulkarni, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Emergency Medicine, American College of Emergency Physicians, American Medical Association, American Medical Informatics Association, Phi Beta Kappa, and Society for Academic Emergency Medicine

Disclosure: WebMD Salary Employment

Ashir Kumar, MD, MBBS, FAAP Professor Emeritus, Department of Pediatrics and Human Development, Michigan State University College of Human Medicine

Ashir Kumar, MD, MBBS, FAAP is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Physicians of Indian Origin and Infectious Diseases Society of America

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose

Mark L Plaster, MD, JD Executive Editor, Emergency Physicians Monthly

Mark L Plaster, MD, JD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Emergency Medicine and American College of Emergency Physicians

Disclosure: M L Plaster Publishing Co LLC Ownership interest Management position

Binita R Shah, MD, FAAP, Professor of Clinical Pediatrics and Emergency Medicine, SUNY Health Sciences Center at Brooklyn; Director of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Departments of Emergency Medicine and Pediatrics, Kings County Hospital Center

Binita R Shah, MD, FAAP is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Richard H Sinert, DO Associate Professor of Emergency Medicine, Clinical Assistant Professor of Medicine, Research Director, State University of New York College of Medicine; Consulting Staff, Department of Emergency Medicine, Kings County Hospital Center

Richard H Sinert, DO is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians and Society for Academic Emergency Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Russell W Steele, MD Head, Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Ochsner Children's Health Center; Clinical Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Tulane University School of Medicine

Russell W Steele, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Association of Immunologists, American Pediatric Society, American Society for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Louisiana State Medical Society, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, Society for Pediatric Research, and Southern Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Reference Salary Employment

Robert W Tolan Jr, MD Chief, Division of Allergy, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, The Children's Hospital at Saint Peter's University Hospital; Clinical Associate Professor of Pediatrics, Drexel University College of Medicine

Robert W Tolan Jr, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Medical Association, American Society for Microbiology, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, Phi Beta Kappa, and Physicians for Social Responsibility

Disclosure: Novartis Honoraria Speaking and teaching

R Gentry Wilkerson, MD Assistant Professor, Director of Research, Emergency Medicine Residency Program, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa General Hospital

R Gentry Wilkerson, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Emergency Physicians

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Renee Wilson, MD, Clinical Assistant Instructor, Department of Emergency Medicine, SUNY-Downstate and Kings County Hospital

Renee Wilson, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Society for Academic Emergency Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mary L Windle, PharmD Adjunct Associate Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Martin Weisse, MD Program Director, Associate Professor, Department of Pediatrics, West Virginia University

Martin Weisse, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Ambulatory Pediatric Association, American Academy of Pediatrics, and Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Jeffrey M Zaks, MD Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine; Vice President, Medical Affairs, Chief Medical Officer, Department of Internal Medicine, Providence Hospital

Jeffrey M Zaks, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Cardiology, American College of Healthcare Executives, American College of Physician Executives, and American Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Amy Cai, MD, for the video and for sharing patient samples and insights.

• Print this section
• Print the entire contents of
• Print the entire contents of article