Rheumatic Fever Questions & Answers

1. Cilliers AM. Rheumatic fever and its management. BMJ. 2006 Dec 2. 333(7579):1153-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

2. Stollerman GH. Rheumatic fever. Lancet. 1997 Mar 29. 349(9056):935-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

3. Bisno AL, Pearce IA, Stollerman GH. Streptococcal infections that fail to cause recurrences of rheumatic fever. J Infect Dis. 1977 Aug. 136(2):278-85. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Shulman ST. Rheumatic heart disease in developing countries. N Engl J Med. 2007 Nov 15. 357(20):2089; author reply 2089. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

5. McDonald M, Currie BJ, Carapetis JR. Acute rheumatic fever: a chink in the chain that links the heart to the throat?. Lancet Infect Dis. 2004 Apr. 4(4):240-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

6. Carapetis JR, McDonald M, Wilson NJ. Acute rheumatic fever. Lancet. 2005. 366:155-68. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

7. Dooley LM, Ahmad TB, Pandey M, Good MF, Kotiw M. Rheumatic heart disease: A review of the current status of global research activity. Autoimmun Rev. 2020 Dec 14. 102740. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

8. Erdem G, Mizumoto C, Esaki D, Reddy V, Kurahara D, Yamaga K, et al. Group A streptococcal isolates temporally associated with acute rheumatic fever in Hawaii: differences from the continental United States. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Aug 1. 45(3):e20-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

9. de Crombrugghe G, Baroux N, Botteaux A, Moreland NJ, Williamson DA, Steer AC, et al. The Limitations of the Rheumatogenic Concept for Group A Streptococcus: Systematic Review and Genetic Analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2020 Mar 17. 70 (7):1453-1460. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. Guilherme L, Kalil J, Cunningham M. Molecular mimicry in the autoimmune pathogenesis of rheumatic heart disease. Autoimmunity. 2006 Feb. 39(1):31-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

11. Guilherme L, Kalil J. Rheumatic Heart Disease: Molecules Involved in Valve Tissue Inflammation Leading to the Autoimmune Process and Anti-S. pyogenes Vaccine. Front Immunol. 2013. 4:352. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

12. Sikder S, Williams NL, Sorenson AE, Alim MA, Vidgen ME, Moreland NJ, et al. Group G Streptococcus Induces an Autoimmune Carditis Mediated by Interleukin 17A and Interferon γ in the Lewis Rat Model of Rheumatic Heart Disease. J Infect Dis. 2018 Jun 20. 218 (2):324-335. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

13. Veasy LG, Wiedmeier SE, Orsmond GS. Resurgence of acute rheumatic fever in the intermountain area of the United States. N Engl J Med. 1987 Feb 19. 316(8):421-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

14. Wallace MR, Garst PD, Papadimos TJ, Oldfield EC 3rd. The return of acute rheumatic fever in young adults. JAMA. 1989 Nov 10. 262(18):2557-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

15. Erdem G, Dodd A, Tuua A, Sinclair S, I'atala TF, Marrone JR, et al. Acute rheumatic fever in American Samoa. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007 Dec. 26(12):1158-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

16. Carapetis JR, Steer AC, Mulholland EK, Weber M. The global burden of group A streptococcal diseases. Lancet Infect Dis. 2005 Nov. 5(11):685-94. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

17. Carapetis JR. Rheumatic heart disease in developing countries. N Engl J Med. 2007 Aug 2. 357(5):439-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Watkins DA, Johnson CO, Colquhoun SM, Karthikeyan G, Beaton A, Bukhman G, et al. Global, Regional, and National Burden of Rheumatic Heart Disease, 1990-2015. N Engl J Med. 2017 Aug 24. 377 (8):713-722. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Joseph N, Madi D, Kumar GS, Nelliyanil M, Saralaya V, Rai S. Clinical spectrum of rheumatic Fever and rheumatic heart disease: a 10 year experience in an urban area of South India. N Am J Med Sci. 2013 Nov. 5(11):647-52. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Watkins DA, Beaton AZ, Carapetis JR, Karthikeyan G, Mayosi BM, Wyber R, et al. Rheumatic Heart Disease Worldwide: JACC Scientific Expert Panel. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 Sep 18. 72 (12):1397-1416. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

21. Muhamed B, Parks T, Sliwa K. Genetics of rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2020 Mar. 17 (3):145-154. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Casey JD, Solomon DH, Gaziano TA, Miller AL, Loscalzo J. Clinical problem-solving. A patient with migrating polyarthralgias. N Engl J Med. 2013 Jul 4. 369(1):75-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. Atatoa-Carr P, Lennon D, Wilson N,. Rheumatic fever diagnosis, management, and secondary prevention: a New Zealand guideline. N Z Med J. 2008 Apr 4. 121(1271):59-69. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

24. Gewitz MH,Baltimore RS, Tani LY,et al. Revision of the Jones Criteria for the diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever in the era of Doppler echocardiography: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2015 May 19. 131 (20):1806-18. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Weiner SG, Normandin PA. Sydenham chorea: a case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2007 Jan. 23(1):20-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

26. Marijon E, Ou P, Celermajer DS, Ferreira B, Mocumbi AO, Jani D, et al. Prevalence of rheumatic heart disease detected by echocardiographic screening. N Engl J Med. 2007 Aug 2. 357(5):470-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

27. Marijon E, Ou P, Celermajer DS, Ferreira B, Mocumbi AO, Sidi D, et al. Echocardiographic screening for rheumatic heart disease. Bull World Health Organ. 2008 Feb. 86(2):84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Vijayalakshmi IB, Vishnuprabhu RO, Chitra N, Rajasri R, Anuradha TV. The efficacy of echocardiographic criterions for the diagnosis of carditis in acute rheumatic fever. Cardiol Young. 2008 Oct 10. 1-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. Karthikeyan G, Guilherme L. Acute rheumatic fever. Lancet. 2018 Jul 14. 392 (10142):161-174. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

30. Sahin M, Yildirim I, Ozkutlu S, Alehan D, Ozer S, Karagöz T. Clinical features and mid- and long-term outcomes of pediatric patients with subclinical carditis. Turk J Pediatr. 2012 Sep-Oct. 54(5):486-92. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Narula J, Kaplan EL. Echocardiographic diagnosis of rheumatic fever. Lancet. 2001 Dec 8. 358(9297):2000. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

32. Tubridy-Clark M, Carapetis JR. Subclinical carditis in rheumatic fever: a systematic review. Int J Cardiol. 2007 Jun 25. 119(1):54-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

33. Kaplan EL, Anthony BF, Chapman SS, Ayoub EM, Wannamaker LW. The influence of the site of infection on the immune response to group A streptococci. J Clin Invest. 1970 Jul. 49(7):1405-14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. Ayoub EM, Nelson B, Shulman ST, Barrett DJ, Campbell JD, Armstrong G. Group A streptococcal antibodies in subjects with or without rheumatic fever in areas with high or low incidences of rheumatic fever. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2003 Sep. 10(5):886-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

35. Wilson NJ, Voss L, Morreau J, Stewart J, Lennon D. New Zealand guidelines for the diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever: small increase in the incidence of definite cases compared to the American Heart Association Jones criteria. N Z Med J. 2013 Aug 2. 126(1379):50-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

36. Shivaram P, Ahmed MI, Kariyanna PT, Sabbineni H, Avula UM. Doppler echocardiography imaging in detecting multi-valvular lesions: a clinical evaluation in children with acute rheumatic fever. PLoS One. 2013. 8(9):e74114. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

37. Pereira BA, da Silva NA, Andrade LE, Lima FS, Gurian FC, de Almeida Netto JC. Jones criteria and underdiagnosis of rheumatic fever. Indian J Pediatr. 2007 Feb. 74(2):117-21. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. Ralph AP, Noonan S, Wade V, Currie BJ. The 2020 Australian guideline for prevention, diagnosis and management of acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease. Med J Aust. 2020 Nov 15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

39. Voss LM, Wilson NJ, Neutze JM, Whitlock RM, Ameratunga RV, Cairns LM. Intravenous immunoglobulin in acute rheumatic fever: a randomized controlled trial. Circulation. 2001 Jan 23. 103(3):401-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

40. Kim ML, Martin WJ, Minigo G, Keeble JL, Garnham AL, Pacini G, et al. Dysregulated IL-1β-GM-CSF Axis in Acute Rheumatic Fever That Is Limited by Hydroxychloroquine. Circulation. 2018 Dec 4. 138 (23):2648-2661. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

41. Bilavsky E, Eliahou R, Keller N, Yarden-Bilavsky H, Harel L, Amir J. Effect of benzathine penicillin treatment on antibiotic susceptibility of viridans streptococci in oral flora of patients receiving secondary prophylaxis after rheumatic fever. J Infect. 2008 Apr. 56(4):244-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

42. Dale JB. Current status of group A streptococcal vaccine development. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2008. 609:53-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

43. Schödel F, Moreland NJ, Wittes JT, Mulholland K, Frazer I, Steer AC, et al. Clinical development strategy for a candidate group A streptococcal vaccine. Vaccine. 2017 Apr 11. 35 (16):2007-2014. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

Mark R Wallace, MD, FACP, FIDSA Infectious Disease Physician, Skagit Valley Hospital, Skagit Regional Health

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Larry I Lutwick, MD, FACP Editor-in-Chief, ID Cases; Moderator, Program for Monitoring Emerging Diseases; Adjunct Professor of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate College of Medicine

Larry I Lutwick, MD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases, American College of Physicians, American Federation for Clinical Research, American Society for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Infectious Diseases Society of New York, International Society for Infectious Diseases, New York Academy of Sciences, Veterans Affairs Society of Practitioners in Infectious Diseases

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Jayashree Ravishankar, MD, MRCP Medical Director, STAR Health Center, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center

Jayashree Ravishankar, MD, MRCP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, Infectious Diseases Society of America

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Richard B Brown, MD, FACP Chief, Division of Infectious Diseases, Baystate Medical Center; Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine

Richard B Brown, MD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Physicians, American Medical Association, American Society for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Massachusetts Medical Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Michael Stuart Bronze, MD David Ross Boyd Professor and Chairman, Department of Medicine, Stewart G Wolf Endowed Chair in Internal Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Science Center; Master of the American College of Physicians; Fellow, Infectious Diseases Society of America; Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, London

Michael Stuart Bronze, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College of Physicians, American Medical Association, Association of Professors of Medicine, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Oklahoma State Medical Association, Southern Society for Clinical Investigation

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Thomas J Marrie, MD Dean of Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University Faculty of Medicine, Canada

Thomas J Marrie, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College of Physicians, American Society for Microbiology, Association of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Disease Canada, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

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