Laboratory Studies

Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) is difficult to grow in cell culture, largely explaining the delay in recognizing this pathogen, which has been causing disease for 50 years. Isolation is possible in a limited number of cell lines and requires trypsin supplementation. This is not a clinically useful mode of diagnosis given these technical limitations and the prolonged time to effectively culture hMPV.

A serological test is possible using enzyme-linked immunoassays (ELISA). However, seropositivity is nearly universal after early childhood, making definitive serological diagnosis reliant on seroconversion or a 4-fold titer increase on serial samples.
Immunofluorescence testing has been developed for hMPV and is available through commercial laboratories but is not yet widely used in clinical settings.
The most sensitive means of hMPV infection diagnosis is by quantitative reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) of respiratory secretions, which is currently the most commonly used method. In research settings, this technique is also being used to quantify viral load. Multiplex qRT-PCR are being used with increasing frequency to diagnose hMPV infection and to rule out concomitant viral infections.
hMPV new rapid antigen test using lateral-flow immunochromatography with gold colloid-conjugated hMPV antibodies was investigated and showed 70.6% sensitivity and 95.5% specificity. However, this test is not widely available in clinical settings. ^{[77, 76]}

Imaging Studies

Although chest radiography is often obtained in patients with significant lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI), no findings distinguish hMPV from other causes of viral pneumonia or bronchiolitis. Chest CT scanning without contrast is the image of choice to evaluate for LRTI in combination with viral testing such as multiplex qRT-PCR. The most common findings of hMPV infection on CT scanning are patchy ground-glass opacities, centrilobular nodules, bronchial wall thickening, and multifocal areas of consolidation.^[53]Nonetheless, these findings can be found in nearly all presentations of viral pneumonia.

Treatment & Management

Falsey AR, Erdman D, Anderson LJ, Walsh EE. Human metapneumovirus infections in young and elderly adults. J Infect Dis. 2003 Mar 1. 187(5):785-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Rohde G, Borg I, Arinir U, Kronsbein J, Rausse R, Bauer TT. Relevance of human metapneumovirus in exacerbations of COPD. Respir Res. 2005. 6:150. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
McManus TE, Marley AM, Baxter N, Christie SN, O'Neill HJ, Elborn JS. Respiratory viral infection in exacerbations of COPD. Respir Med. 2008 Nov. 102(11):1575-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Boivin G, Abed Y, Pelletier G, et al. Virological features and clinical manifestations associated with human metapneumovirus: a new paramyxovirus responsible for acute respiratory-tract infections in all age groups. J Infect Dis. 2002 Nov 1. 186(9):1330-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Schildgen O, Geikowski T, Glatzel T, Schuster J, Simon A. Frequency of human metapneumovirus in the upper respiratory tract of children with symptoms of an acute otitis media. Eur J Pediatr. 2005 Jun. 164(6):400-1. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Suzuki A, Watanabe O, Okamoto M, Endo H, Yano H, Suetake M. Detection of human metapneumovirus from children with acute otitis media. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2005 Jul. 24(7):655-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Jartti T, van den Hoogen B, Garofalo RP, et al. Metapneumovirus and acute wheezing in children. Lancet. 2002 Nov 2. 360(9343):1393-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
van den Hoogen BG, de Jong JC, Groen J, et al. A newly discovered human pneumovirus isolated from young children with respiratory tract disease. Nat Med. 2001 Jun. 7(6):719-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wilkesmann A, Schildgen O, Eis-Hubinger AM, et al. Human metapneumovirus infections cause similar symptoms and clinical severity as respiratory syncytial virus infections. Eur J Pediatr. 2006 Mar 23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Feuillet F, Lina B, Rosa-Calatrava M, Boivin G. Ten years of human metapneumovirus research. J Clin Virol. 2011 Nov 8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Peret TC, Boivin G, Li Y, et al. Characterization of human metapneumoviruses isolated from patients in North America. J Infect Dis. 2002 Jun 1. 185(11):1660-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Laham FR, Israele V, Casellas JM, Garcia AM, Lac Prugent CM, Hoffman SJ. Differential production of inflammatory cytokines in primary infection with human metapneumovirus and with other common respiratory viruses of infancy. J Infect Dis. 2004 Jun 1. 189(11):2047-56. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Melendi GA, Laham FR, Monsalvo AC, Casellas JM, Israele V, Polack NR, et al. Cytokine profiles in the respiratory tract during primary infection with human metapneumovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, or influenza virus in infants. Pediatrics. 2007 Aug. 120(2):e410-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Skiadopoulos MH, Biacchesi S, Buchholz UJ, Riggs JM, Surman SR, Amaro-Carambot E. The two major human metapneumovirus genetic lineages are highly related antigenically, and the fusion (F) protein is a major contributor to this antigenic relatedness. J Virol. 2004 Jul. 78(13):6927-37. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kuiken T, van den Hoogen BG, van Riel DA, Laman JD, van Amerongen G, Sprong L. Experimental human metapneumovirus infection of cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) results in virus replication in ciliated epithelial cells and pneumocytes with associated lesions throughout the respiratory tract. Am J Pathol. 2004 Jun. 164(6):1893-900. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Williams JV, Tollefson SJ, Johnson JE, Crowe JE Jr. The cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) is a permissive small animal model of human metapneumovirus infection, pathogenesis, and protective immunity. J Virol. 2005 Sep. 79(17):10944-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wyde PR, Chetty SN, Jewell AM, Schoonover SL, Piedra PA. Development of a cotton rat-human metapneumovirus (hMPV) model for identifying and evaluating potential hMPV antivirals and vaccines. Antiviral Res. 2005 Apr. 66(1):57-66. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Alvarez R, Harrod KS, Shieh WJ, Zaki S, Tripp RA. Human metapneumovirus persists in BALB/c mice despite the presence of neutralizing antibodies. J Virol. 2004 Dec. 78(24):14003-11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Guerrero-Plata A, Baron S, Poast JS, Adegboyega PA, Casola A, Garofalo RP. Activity and regulation of alpha interferon in respiratory syncytial virus and human metapneumovirus experimental infections. J Virol. 2005 Aug. 79(16):10190-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Alvarez R, Tripp RA. The immune response to human metapneumovirus is associated with aberrant immunity and impaired virus clearance in BALB/c mice. J Virol. 2005 May. 79(10):5971-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bosis S, Esposito S, Osterhaus AD, Tremolati E, Begliatti E, Tagliabue C. Association between high nasopharyngeal viral load and disease severity in children with human metapneumovirus infection. J Clin Virol. 2008 Jul. 42(3):286-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Martin ET, Kuypers J, Heugel J, Englund JA. Clinical disease and viral load in children infected with respiratory syncytial virus or human metapneumovirus. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2008 Dec. 62(4):382-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Leung J, Esper F, Weibel C, Kahn JS. Seroepidemiology of human metapneumovirus (hMPV) on the basis of a novel enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay utilizing hMPV fusion protein expressed in recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus. J Clin Microbiol. 2005 Mar. 43(3):1213-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ebihara T, Endo R, Kikuta H, Ishiguro N, Yoshioka M, Ma X, et al. Seroprevalence of human metapneumovirus in Japan. J Med Virol. 2003 Jun. 70(2):281-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Williams JV, Wang CK, Yang CF, Tollefson SJ, House FS, Heck JM. The role of human metapneumovirus in upper respiratory tract infections in children: a 20-year experience. J Infect Dis. 2006 Feb 1. 193(3):387-95. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Williams JV, Harris PA, Tollefson SJ, Halburnt-Rush LL, Pingsterhaus JM, Edwards KM. Human metapneumovirus and lower respiratory tract disease in otherwise healthy infants and children. N Engl J Med. 2004 Jan 29. 350(5):443-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Williams JV, Martino R, Rabella N, Otegui M, Parody R, Heck JM, et al. A prospective study comparing human metapneumovirus with other respiratory viruses in adults with hematologic malignancies and respiratory tract infections. J Infect Dis. 2005 Sep 15. 192(6):1061-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Englund JA, Boeckh M, Kuypers J, Nichols WG, Hackman RC, Morrow RA, et al. Brief communication: fatal human metapneumovirus infection in stem-cell transplant recipients. Ann Intern Med. 2006 Mar 7. 144(5):344-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hopkins P, McNeil K, Kermeen F, Musk M, McQueen E, Mackay I, et al. Human metapneumovirus in lung transplant recipients and comparison to respiratory syncytial virus. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008 Oct 15. 178(8):876-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Liao RS, Appelgate DM, Pelz RK. An outbreak of severe respiratory tract infection due to human metapneumovirus in a long-term care facility for the elderly in Oregon. J Clin Virol. 2011 Nov 9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Peiris JS, Tang WH, Chan KH, Khong PL, Guan Y, Lau YL, et al. Children with respiratory disease associated with metapneumovirus in Hong Kong. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003 Jun. 9(6):628-33. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Garcia J, Sovero M, Kochel T, Laguna-Torres VA, Gamero ME, Gomez J, et al. Human metapneumovirus strains circulating in Latin America. Arch Virol. 2011 Dec 27. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lo Presti A, Cammarota R, Apostoli P, Cella E, Fiorentini S, Babakir-Mina M, et al. Genetic variability and circulation pattern of human metapneumovirus isolated in Italy over five epidemic seasons. New Microbiol. 2011 Oct. 34(4):337-44. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Banerjee S, Sullender WM, Ahuja RK, Broor S. Seroepidemiological study of human metapneumovirus in New Delhi, India. Indian J Med Microbiol. 2011 Oct. 29(4):363-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Pelletier G, Déry P, Abed Y, Boivin G. Respiratory tract reinfections by the new human Metapneumovirus in an immunocompromised child. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002 Sep. 8(9):976-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Broughton S, Sylvester KP, Fox G, Zuckerman M, Smith M, Milner AD, et al. Lung function in prematurely born infants after viral lower respiratory tract infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007 Nov. 26(11):1019-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Greensill J, McNamara PS, Dove W, Flanagan B, Smyth RL, Hart CA. Human metapneumovirus in severe respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003 Mar. 9(3):372-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
McNamara PS, Flanagan BF, Smyth RL, Hart CA. Impact of human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus co-infection in severe bronchiolitis. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2007 Aug. 42(8):740-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Semple MG, Cowell A, Dove W, Greensill J, McNamara PS, Halfhide C, et al. Dual infection of infants by human metapneumovirus and human respiratory syncytial virus is strongly associated with severe bronchiolitis. J Infect Dis. 2005 Feb 1. 191(3):382-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chan PK, Tam JS, Lam CW, Chan E, Wu A, Li CK. Human metapneumovirus detection in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003 Sep. 9(9):1058-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lazar I, Weibel C, Dziura J, Ferguson D, Landry ML, Kahn JS. Human metapneumovirus and severity of respiratory syncytial virus disease. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004 Jul. 10(7):1318-20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wyde PR, Chetty SN, Jewell AM, Boivin G, Piedra PA. Comparison of the inhibition of human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus by ribavirin and immune serum globulin in vitro. Antiviral Res. 2003 Sep. 60(1):51-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hamelin ME, Prince GA, Boivin G. Effect of ribavirin and glucocorticoid treatment in a mouse model of human metapneumovirus infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2006 Feb. 50(2):774-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Herfst S, Fouchier RA. Vaccination approaches to combat human metapneumovirus lower respiratory tract infections. J Clin Virol. 2008 Jan. 41(1):49-52. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cseke G, Wright DW, Tollefson SJ, Johnson JE, Crowe JE Jr, Williams JV. Human metapneumovirus fusion protein vaccines that are immunogenic and protective in cotton rats. J Virol. 2007 Jan. 81(2):698-707. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Deffrasnes C, Hamelin ME, Prince GA, Boivin G. Identification and evaluation of a highly effective fusion inhibitor for human metapneumovirus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008 Jan. 52(1):279-87. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Harrison L. Metapneumovirus hits kids first. Medscape Medical News. October 10, 2013. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/812435. Accessed: October 15, 2013.
Haynes A, Schneider E, Gerber S. Human metapneumovirus circulation in the US—2007-2013 [abstract 124]. Presented at: IDWeek 2013; October 3, 2013; San Francisco, California. Available at https://idsa.confex.com/idsa/2013/webprogram/Paper41006.html. Accessed: October 15, 2013.
Stockmann C, Ampofo K, Hersh AL, et al. Age-specific patterns of human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus activity [abstract 123]. Presented at: IDWeek 2013; October 3, 2013; San Francisco, California. Available at https://idsa.confex.com/idsa/2013/webprogram/Paper40655.html. Accessed: October 15, 2013.
Kitanovski L, Kopriva S, Pokorn M, Dolničar MB, Rajić V, Stefanović M, et al. Treatment of severe human metapneumovirus (hMPV) pneumonia in an immunocompromised child with oral ribavirin and IVIG. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2013 Oct. 35 (7):e311-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Panda S, Mohakud NK, Pena L, Kumar S. Human metapneumovirus: review of an important respiratory pathogen. Int J Infect Dis. 2014 Aug. 25:45-52. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ison MG. Respiratory viral infections in transplant recipients. Antivir Ther. 2007. 12 (4 Pt B):627-38. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hoppe BP, de Jongh E, Griffioen-Keijzer A, Zijlstra-Baalbergen JM, IJzerman EP, Baboe F. Human metapneumovirus in haematopoietic stem cell transplantation recipients: a case series and review of the diagnostic and therapeutic approach. Neth J Med. 2016 Oct. 74 (8):336-341. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Yang Z, Suzuki A, Watanabe O, Okamoto M, Ohmi A, Huang W, et al. Outbreak of human metapneumovirus infection in a severe motor-and-intellectual disabilities ward in Japan. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2014. 67 (4):318-21. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Nao N, Saikusa M, Sato K, Sekizuka T, Usuku S, Tanaka N, et al. Recent Molecular Evolution of Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV): Subdivision of HMPV A2b Strains. Microorganisms. 2020 Aug 21. 8 (9):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Rogers MC, Lamens KD, Shafagati N, Johnson M, Oury TD, Joyce S, et al. CD4⁺ Regulatory T Cells Exert Differential Functions during Early and Late Stages of the Immune Response to Respiratory Viruses. J Immunol. 2018 Aug 15. 201 (4):1253-1266. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cheemarla NR, Guerrero-Plata A. Immune Response to Human Metapneumovirus Infection: What We Have Learned from the Mouse Model. Pathogens. 2015 Sep 18. 4 (3):682-96. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Céspedes PF, Gonzalez PA, Kalergis AM. Human metapneumovirus keeps dendritic cells from priming antigen-specific naive T cells. Immunology. 2013 Jul. 139 (3):366-76. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Okamoto M, Sugawara K, Takashita E, Muraki Y, Hongo S, Nishimura H, et al. Longitudinal course of human metapneumovirus antibody titers and reinfection in healthy adults. J Med Virol. 2010 Dec. 82 (12):2092-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wolf DG, Zakay-Rones Z, Fadeela A, Greenberg D, Dagan R. High seroprevalence of human metapneumovirus among young children in Israel. J Infect Dis. 2003 Dec 15. 188 (12):1865-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Dunn SR, Ryder AB, Tollefson SJ, Xu M, Saville BR, Williams JV. Seroepidemiologies of human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus in young children, determined with a new recombinant fusion protein enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2013 Oct. 20 (10):1654-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Pavlin JA, Hickey AC, Ulbrandt N, Chan YP, Endy TP, Boukhvalova MS, et al. Human metapneumovirus reinfection among children in Thailand determined by ELISA using purified soluble fusion protein. J Infect Dis. 2008 Sep 15. 198 (6):836-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lefebvre A, Manoha C, Bour JB, Abbas R, Fournel I, Tiv M, et al. Human metapneumovirus in patients hospitalized with acute respiratory infections: A meta-analysis. J Clin Virol. 2016 Aug. 81:68-77. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Howard LM, Edwards KM, Zhu Y, Grijalva CG, Self WH, Jain S, et al. Clinical Features of Human Metapneumovirus-Associated Community-acquired Pneumonia Hospitalizations. Clin Infect Dis. 2021 Jan 23. 72 (1):108-117. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Widmer K, Zhu Y, Williams JV, Griffin MR, Edwards KM, Talbot HK. Rates of hospitalizations for respiratory syncytial virus, human metapneumovirus, and influenza virus in older adults. J Infect Dis. 2012 Jul 1. 206 (1):56-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Edwards KM, Zhu Y, Griffin MR, Weinberg GA, Hall CB, Szilagyi PG, et al. Burden of human metapneumovirus infection in young children. N Engl J Med. 2013 Feb 14. 368 (7):633-43. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wu A, Budge PJ, Williams J, Griffin MR, Edwards KM, Johnson M, et al. Incidence and Risk Factors for Respiratory Syncytial Virus and Human Metapneumovirus Infections among Children in the Remote Highlands of Peru. PLoS One. 2015. 10 (6):e0130233. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Papenburg J, Hamelin MÈ, Ouhoummane N, Carbonneau J, Ouakki M, Raymond F, et al. Comparison of risk factors for human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus disease severity in young children. J Infect Dis. 2012 Jul 15. 206 (2):178-89. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Alharthy A, Faqihi F, Karakitsos D. SARS-CoV-2 Complicated by Sinusitis and Co-Infection with Human Metapneumovirus. R I Med J (2013). 2020 Aug 3. 103 (6):23-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Roh KH, Kim YK, Kim SW, Kang ER, Yang YJ, Jung SK, et al. Coinfections with Respiratory Pathogens among COVID-19 Patients in Korea. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2021. 2021:6651045. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hashemi SA, Safamanesh S, Ghasemzadeh-Moghaddam H, Ghafouri M, Mohajerzadeh-Heydari MS, Namdar-Ahmadabad H, et al. Report of death in children with SARS-CoV-2 and human metapneumovirus (hMPV) coinfection: Is hMPV the trigger?. J Med Virol. 2021 Feb. 93 (2):579-581. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kikuta H, Sakata C, Gamo R, Ishizaka A, Koga Y, Konno M, et al. Comparison of a lateral-flow immunochromatography assay with real-time reverse transcription-PCR for detection of human metapneumovirus. J Clin Microbiol. 2008 Mar. 46 (3):928-32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Matsuzaki Y, Takashita E, Okamoto M, Mizuta K, Itagaki T, Katsushima F, et al. Evaluation of a new rapid antigen test using immunochromatography for detection of human metapneumovirus in comparison with real-time PCR assay. J Clin Microbiol. 2009 Sep. 47 (9):2981-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Akhmedov M, Wais V, Sala E, Neagoie A, Nguyen TM, Gantner A, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus and human metapneumovirus after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: Impact of the immunodeficiency scoring index, viral load, and ribavirin treatment on the outcomes. Transpl Infect Dis. 2020 Aug. 22 (4):e13276. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

Media Gallery

Phylogenetic tree showing sequence analysis of human metapneumovirus (hMPV).
Phylogenetic tree of human metapneumovirus (hMPV) strains. Courtesy of Microorganisms [Nao N, Saikusa M, Sato K, et al. Recent Molecular Evolution of Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV): Subdivision of HMPV A2b Strains. Microorganisms. 2020 Sep;8(9):1280. Online at: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/8/9/1280.].
Phylogenetic analysis of the L-proteins of members of the family Paramyxoviridae. Courtesy of ICTV 9th Report on Virus Classification and Taxon Nomenclature (2011) [https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv-reports/ictv_9th_report/negative-sense-rna-viruses-2011/w/negrna_viruses/200/paramyxoviridae-figures].

of 3

Author

Varvara Probst, MD Resident Physician, Department of Pediatrics University of Florida College of Medicine

Varvara Probst, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Ayesha Mirza, MD Associate Professor of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, University of Florida College of Medicine-Jacksonville

Ayesha Mirza, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, HIV Medicine Association, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

John W King, MD Professor of Medicine, Chief, Section of Infectious Diseases, Director, Viral Therapeutics Clinics for Hepatitis, Louisiana State University School of Medicine in Shreveport; Consultant in Infectious Diseases, Overton Brooks Veterans Affairs Medical Center

John W King, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American College of Physicians, American Federation for Medical Research, American Society for Microbiology, Association of Subspecialty Professors, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Honor Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Pranatharthi Haran Chandrasekar, MBBS, MD Professor, Chief of Infectious Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine

Pranatharthi Haran Chandrasekar, MBBS, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Society for Microbiology, International Immunocompromised Host Society, Infectious Diseases Society of America

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Additional Contributors

Michael Rajnik, MD Associate Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Program Director, Pediatric Infectious Disease Fellowship Program, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences

Michael Rajnik, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, Armed Forces Infectious Diseases Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Ashley Maranich, MD Pediatric Infectious Disease Staff, San Antonio Military Medical Center, Wilford Hall Medical Center

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Aliyah Baluch, MD, MSc, FACP Assistant Professor of Medicine, Department of Oncologic Sciences, University of South Florida Morsani College of Medicine; Assistant Member, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Moffitt Cancer Center

Aliyah Baluch, MD, MSc, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation, American Society of Transplantation, Infectious Diseases Society of America

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Acknowledgements

The authors and editors of Medscape Reference gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous authors Michael D Nissen, MBBS, FRACP, FRCPA, Theodorus P Sloots, PhD, and David Siebert, MD, to the development and writing of this article.

Human Metapneumovirus Workup

Laboratory Studies

Imaging Studies

References

Tables

Contributor Information and Disclosures

What would you like to print?