Loiasis (African Eye Worm) Guidelines

1. Klion A, Nutman TB. Loiasis and Mansonella Infections. Guerrant R, Walker DH, Weller PF. Tropical Infectious Diseases: Principles, Pathogens and Practice. 3rd. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier; 2011. 735.

2. Whittaker C, Walker M, Pion SDS, Chesnais CB, Boussinesq M, Basáñez MG. The Population Biology and Transmission Dynamics of Loa loa. Trends Parasitol. 2018 Apr. 34 (4):335-350. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

3. Mischlinger J, Veletzky L, Tazemda-Kuitsouc GB, Pitzinger P, Matsegui PB, Gmeiner M, et al. Behavioural and clinical predictors for Loiasis. J Glob Health. 2018 Jun. 8 (1):010413. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Wanji S, Akotshi DO, Mutro MN, Tepage F, Ukety TO, Diggle PJ, et al. Validation of the rapid assessment procedure for loiasis (RAPLOA) in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Parasit Vectors. 2012 Feb 2. 5:25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

5. Zouré HG, Wanji S, Noma M, Amazigo UV, Diggle PJ, Tekle AH, et al. The geographic distribution of Loa loa in Africa: results of large-scale implementation of the Rapid Assessment Procedure for Loiasis (RAPLOA). PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011 Jun. 5 (6):e1210. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

6. Amy D Klion. Loiasis (Loa loa infection). UpToDate. Available at http://www.uptodate.com/contents/loiasis-loa-loa-infection. 05/04/2017; Accessed: 7/23/2017.

7. Padgett JJ, Jacobsen KH. Loiasis: African eye worm. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2008 Oct. 102 (10):983-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

8. Boussinesq M. Loiasis. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2006 Dec. 100 (8):715-31. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

9. Bakajika DK, Nigo MM, Lotsima JP, Masikini GA, Fischer K, Lloyd MM, et al. Filarial antigenemia and Loa loa night blood microfilaremia in an area without bancroftian filariasis in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2014 Dec. 91 (6):1142-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. Klion AD, Massougbodji A, Sadeler BC, Ottesen EA, Nutman TB. Loiasis in endemic and nonendemic populations: immunologically mediated differences in clinical presentation. J Infect Dis. 1991 Jun. 163 (6):1318-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

11. Ojurongbe O, Akindele AA, Adeleke MA, Oyedeji MO, Adedokun SA, Ojo JF, et al. Co-endemicity of loiasis and onchocerciasis in rain forest communities in southwestern Nigeria. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015 Mar. 9 (3):e0003633. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

12. Nana-Djeunga HC, Fossuo-Thotchum F, Pion SD, Chesnais CB, Kubofcik J, Mackenzie CD, et al. Loa loa Microfilariae in Skin Snips: Consequences for Onchocerciasis Monitoring and Evaluation in L. loa-Endemic Areas. Clin Infect Dis. 2019 Oct 15. 69 (9):1628-1630. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

13. Kelly-Hope LA, Bockarie MJ, Molyneux DH. Loa loa ecology in central Africa: role of the Congo River system. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2012. 6 (6):e1605. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

14. Gouteux JP, Noireau F, Staak C. The host preferences of Chrysops silacea and C. dimidiata (Diptera: Tabanidae) in an endemic area of Loa loa in the Congo. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1989 Apr. 83 (2):167-72. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

15. Chesnais CB, Takougang I, Paguélé M, Pion SD, Boussinesq M. Excess mortality associated with loiasis: a retrospective population-based cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2017 Jan. 17 (1):108-116. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

16. Hassan S, Isyaku M, Yayo A, Sarkin Fada F, Ihesiulor GU, Iliyasu G. Adult Loa loa Filarial Worm in the Anterior Chamber of the Eye: A First Report from Savanna Belt of Northern Nigeria. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016 Apr. 10 (4):e0004436. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

17. Negesse Y, Lanoie LO, Neafie RC, Connor DH. Loiasis: "Calabar" swellings and involvement of deep organs. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1985 May. 34 (3):537-46. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Andy JJ, Bishara FF, Soyinka OO, Odesanmi WO. Loasis as a possible trigger of African endomyocardial fibrosis: a case report from Nigeria. Acta Trop. 1981 Jun. 38 (2):179-86. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Nutman TB, Miller KD, Mulligan M, Ottesen EA. Loa loa infection in temporary residents of endemic regions: recognition of a hyperresponsive syndrome with characteristic clinical manifestations. J Infect Dis. 1986 Jul. 154 (1):10-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Mogoung-Wafo AE, Nana-Djeunga HC, Domche A, Fossuo-Thotchum F, Bopda J, Mbickmen-Tchana S, et al. Prevalence and intensity of Loa loa infection over twenty-three years in three communities of the Mbalmayo health district (Central Cameroon). BMC Infect Dis. 2019 Feb 13. 19 (1):146. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

21. Gardon J, Gardon-Wendel N, Demanga-Ngangue, Kamgno J, Chippaux JP, Boussinesq M. Serious reactions after mass treatment of onchocerciasis with ivermectin in an area endemic for Loa loa infection. Lancet. 1997 Jul 5. 350 (9070):18-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Carme B, Boulesteix J, Boutes H, Puruehnce MF. Five cases of encephalitis during treatment of loiasis with diethylcarbamazine. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1991 Jun. 44 (6):684-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. Oakley CM, Olsen GJ. Eosinophilia and heart disease. Br Heart J. 1977 Mar. 39 (3):233-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

24. Carme B, Nkoua JL. [Loa loa filariasis: cause of severe eosinophilia]. Bull Soc Pathol Exot Filiales. 1989. 82 (4):581-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Parasites loiasis for health professionals. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Available at https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/loiasis/health_professionals/index.html. Accessed 7-29-2017;

26. Touré FS, Egwang TG, Millet P, Bain O, Georges AJ, Wahl G. IgG4 serology of loiasis in three villages in an endemic area of south-eastern Gabon. Trop Med Int Health. 1998 Apr. 3 (4):313-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

27. Akue JP, Egwang TG, Devaney E. High levels of parasite-specific IgG4 in the absence of microfilaremia in Loa loa infection. Trop Med Parasitol. 1994 Sep. 45 (3):246-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Burbelo PD, Ramanathan R, Klion AD, Iadarola MJ, Nutman TB. Rapid, novel, specific, high-throughput assay for diagnosis of Loa loa infection. J Clin Microbiol. 2008 Jul. 46 (7):2298-304. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. Touré FS, Bain O, Nerrienet E, Millet P, Wahl G, Toure Y, et al. Detection of Loa loa-specific DNA in blood from occult-infected individuals. Exp Parasitol. 1997 Jul. 86 (3):163-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

30. Fink DL, Kamgno J, Nutman TB. Rapid molecular assays for specific detection and quantitation of Loa loa microfilaremia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011 Aug. 5 (8):e1299. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Drame PM, Fink DL, Kamgno J, Herrick JA, Nutman TB. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification for rapid and semiquantitative detection of Loa loa infection. J Clin Microbiol. 2014 Jun. 52 (6):2071-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

32. Fernández-Soto P, Mvoulouga PO, Akue JP, Abán JL, Santiago BV, Sánchez MC, et al. Development of a highly sensitive loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) method for the detection of Loa loa. PLoS One. 2014. 9 (4):e94664. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

33. Boussinesq M. Loiasis: new epidemiologic insights and proposed treatment strategy. J Travel Med. 2012 May-Jun. 19 (3):140-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. Herrick JA, Makiya MA, Holland-Thomas N, Klion AD, Nutman TB. Infection-associated Immune Perturbations Resolve One Year Following Treatment for Loa loa. Clin Infect Dis. 2020 Feb 14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

35. Our Formulary. CDC.gov. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/laboratory/drugservice/formulary.html. 9/22/2016; Accessed: 8/4/2017.

36. Sachs HG, Heep M, Gabel VP. [Surgical worm extraction in loa loa ophthalmia]. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. 1998 Dec. 213 (6):367-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

37. Kamgno J, Nguipdop-Djomo P, Gounoue R, Téjiokem M, Kuesel AC. Effect of Two or Six Doses 800 mg of Albendazole Every Two Months on Loa loa Microfilaraemia: A Double Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016 Mar. 10 (3):e0004492. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. Taylor HR, Murphy RP, Newland HS, White AT, D'Anna SA, Keyvan-Larijani E, et al. Treatment of onchocerciasis. The ocular effects of ivermectin and diethylcarbamazine. Arch Ophthalmol. 1986 Jun. 104 (6):863-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

39. Kamgno J, Pion SD, Chesnais CB, Bakalar MH, D'Ambrosio MV, Mackenzie CD, et al. A Test-and-Not-Treat Strategy for Onchocerciasis in Loa loa-Endemic Areas. N Engl J Med. 2017 Nov 23. 377 (21):2044-2052. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

40. Lenk EJ, Moungui HC, Boussinesq M, Kamgno J, Nana-Djeunga HC, Fitzpatrick C, et al. A test-and-not-treat strategy for onchocerciasis elimination in Loa loa co-endemic areas: cost analysis of a pilot in the Soa health district, Cameroon. Clin Infect Dis. 2019 Jun 4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

41. Turner JD, Tendongfor N, Esum M, Johnston KL, Langley RS, Ford L, et al. Macrofilaricidal activity after doxycycline only treatment of Onchocerca volvulus in an area of Loa loa co-endemicity: a randomized controlled trial. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2010 Apr 13. 4 (4):e660. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

42. Nutman TB, Miller KD, Mulligan M, Reinhardt GN, Currie BJ, Steel C, et al. Diethylcarbamazine prophylaxis for human loiasis. Results of a double-blind study. N Engl J Med. 1988 Sep 22. 319 (12):752-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

43. Pion SD, Tchatchueng-Mbougua JB, Chesnais CB, Kamgno J, Gardon J, Chippaux JP, et al. Effect of a Single Standard Dose (150-200 μg/kg) of Ivermectin on Loa loa Microfilaremia: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2019 Apr. 6 (4):ofz019. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

44. [Guideline] Guidelines for Rapid Assessment of Loa Loa. WHO Special Programme for Research & Training in Tropical Diseases. Available at http://www.who.int/tdr/publications/documents/loa-loa.pdf?ua=1. 2002; Accessed: 8/4/2017.

45. Pion SD, Nana-Djeunga H, Niamsi-Emalio Y, Chesnais CB, Deléglise H, Mackenzie C, et al. Implications for annual retesting after a test-and-not-treat strategy for onchocerciasis elimination in areas co-endemic with Loa loa infection: an observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020 Jan. 20 (1):102-109. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

46. Mouri O, Ezzine N, Haddad E, Achouri L, Parizot C, Thellier M, et al. New promising method to assess microfilarial Loa loa load on the peripheral blood. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2019 Dec. 95 (4):114887. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

Darvin Scott Smith, MD, MSc, DTM&H, FIDSA Chief of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaiser Permanente Medical Group

Darvin Scott Smith, MD, MSc, DTM&H, FIDSA is a member of the following medical societies: American Medical Association, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Infectious Diseases Society of America, International Society of Travel Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Stephanie Rui Chang BA Candidate, Stanford University

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Buck Christensen Medscape Editorial Staff

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Pranatharthi Haran Chandrasekar, MBBS, MD Professor, Chief of Infectious Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine

Pranatharthi Haran Chandrasekar, MBBS, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Society for Microbiology, International Immunocompromised Host Society, Infectious Diseases Society of America

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Muzzammil Imran Muhammad Shittu Graduate Student, CHPR, Stanford University

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

• Print this section
• Print the entire contents of
• Print the entire contents of article