Hydatidiform Mole Questions & Answers

1. Schorge JO, Goldstein DP, Bernstein MR, Berkowitz RS. Recent advances in gestational trophoblastic disease. J Reprod Med. 2000 Sep. 45(9):692-700. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

2. Ito Y, Maehara K, Kaneki E, et al. Novel nonsense mutation in the NLRP7 gene associated with recurrent hydatidiform mole. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2015 Nov 26. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

3. Wolf NG, Lage JM. Genetic analysis of gestational trophoblastic disease: a review. Semin Oncol. 1995 Apr. 22(2):113-20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Slim R, Mehio A. The genetics of hydatidiform moles: new lights on an ancient disease. Clin Genet. 2007 Jan. 71(1):25-34. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

5. Fisher RA, Hodges MD. Genomic imprinting in gestational trophoblastic disease--a review. Placenta. 2003 Apr. 24 Suppl A:S111-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

6. Al-Hussaini TK, Abd el-Aal DM, Van den Veyver IB. Recurrent pregnancy loss due to familial and non-familial habitual molar pregnancy. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2003 Nov. 83(2):179-86. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

7. Fallahian M. Familial gestational trophoblastic disease. Placenta. 2003 Aug. 24(7):797-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

8. Hodges MD, Rees HC, Seckl MJ, et al. Genetic refinement and physical mapping of a biparental complete hydatidiform mole locus on chromosome 19q13.4. J Med Genet. 2003 Aug. 40(8):e95. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

9. Lawler SD, Fisher RA, Dent J. A prospective genetic study of complete and partial hydatidiform moles. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1991 May. 164(5 Pt 1):1270-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. Deveault C, Qian JH, Chebaro W, et al. NLRP7 mutations in women with diploid androgenetic and triploid moles: a proposed mechanism for mole formation. Hum Mol Genet. 2009 Mar 1. 18(5):888-97. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

11. Andreasen L, Christiansen OB, Niemann I, Bolund L, Sunde L. NLRP7 or KHDC3L genes and the etiology of molar pregnancies and recurrent miscarriage. Mol Hum Reprod. 2013 Nov. 19 (11):773-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

12. Watson EJ, Hernandez E, Miyazawa K. Partial hydatidiform moles: a review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 1987 Sep. 42(9):540-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

13. Atrash HK, Hogue CJ, Grimes DA. Epidemiology of hydatidiform mole during early gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1986 Apr. 154(4):906-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

14. Grimes DA. Epidemiology of gestational trophoblastic disease. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1984 Oct 1. 150(3):309-18. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

15. Jeffers MD, O'Dwyer P, Curran B, Leader M, Gillan JE. Partial hydatidiform mole: a common but underdiagnosed condition. A 3-year retrospective clinicopathological and DNA flow cytometric analysis. Int J Gynecol Pathol. 1993 Oct. 12(4):315-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

16. Palmer JR. Advances in the epidemiology of gestational trophoblastic disease. J Reprod Med. 1994 Mar. 39(3):155-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

17. Melamed A, Gockley AA, Joseph NT, Sun SY, Clapp MA, Goldstein DP, et al. Effect of race/ethnicity on risk of complete and partial molar pregnancy after adjustment for age. Gynecol Oncol. 2016 Oct. 143 (1):73-76. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Bandy LC, Clarke-Pearson DL, Hammond CB. Malignant potential of gestational trophoblastic disease at the extreme ages of reproductive life. Obstet Gynecol. 1984 Sep. 64(3):395-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Bracken MB. Incidence and aetiology of hydatidiform mole: an epidemiological review. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1987 Dec. 94(12):1123-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Hurteau JA. Gestational trophoblastic disease: management of hydatidiform mole. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Sep. 46(3):557-69. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

21. Vargas R, Barroilhet LM, Esselen K, et al. Subsequent pregnancy outcomes after complete and partial molar pregnancy, recurrent molar pregnancy, and gestational trophoblastic neoplasia: an update from the New England Trophoblastic Disease Center. J Reprod Med. 2014 May-Jun. 59(5-6):188-94. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Gadducci A, Cosio S, Fanucchi A, et al. Prognosis of Patients with Gestational Trophoblastic Neoplasia and Obstetric Outcomes of Those Conceiving After Chemotherapy. Anticancer Res. 2016 Jul. 36 (7):3477-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. Joneborg U, Eloranta S, Johansson AL, Marions L, Weibull CE, Lambe M. Hydatidiform mole and subsequent pregnancy outcome: a population-based cohort study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2014 Dec. 211(6):681.e1-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

24. Lurain JR, Brewer JI, Torok EE, Halpern B. Natural history of hydatidiform mole after primary evacuation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1983 Mar 1. 145(5):591-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Goto S, Yamada A, Ishizuka T, Tomoda Y. Development of postmolar trophoblastic disease after partial molar pregnancy. Gynecol Oncol. 1993 Feb. 48(2):165-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

26. Cheung AN, Khoo US, Lai CY, et al. Metastatic trophoblastic disease after an initial diagnosis of partial hydatidiform mole: genotyping and chromosome in situ hybridization analysis. Cancer. 2004 Apr 1. 100(7):1411-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

27. Menczer J, Girtler O, Zajdel L, Glezerman M. Metastatic trophoblastic disease following partial hydatidiform mole: case report and literature review. Gynecol Oncol. 1999 Aug. 74(2):304-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Twiggs LB, Morrow CP, Schlaerth JB. Acute pulmonary complications of molar pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1979 Sep 15. 135(2):189-94. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. Sebire NJ, Fisher RA, Foskett M, et al. Risk of recurrent hydatidiform mole and subsequent pregnancy outcome following complete or partial hydatidiform molar pregnancy. BJOG. 2003 Jan. 110(1):22-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

30. Mangili G, Garavaglia E, Cavoretto P, Gentile C, Scarfone G, Rabaiotti E. Clinical presentation of hydatidiform mole in northern Italy: has it changed in the last 20 years?. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2008 Mar. 198(3):302.e1-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Soto-Wright V, Bernstein M, Goldstein DP, Berkowitz RS. The changing clinical presentation of complete molar pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1995 Nov. 86(5):775-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

32. Sun SY, Melamed A, Goldstein DP, et al. Changing presentation of complete hydatidiform mole at the New England Trophoblastic Disease Center over the past three decades: does early diagnosis alter risk for gestational trophoblastic neoplasia?. Gynecol Oncol. 2015 Jul. 138 (1):46-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

33. Amir SM, Osathanondh R, Berkowitz RS, Goldstein DP. Human chorionic gonadotropin and thyroid function in patients with hydatidiform mole. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1984 Nov 15. 150(6):723-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. Sun SY, Melamed A, Joseph NT, et al. Clinical presentation of complete hydatidiform mole and partial hydatidiform mole at a regional trophoblastic disease center in the United States over the past 2 decades. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2015 Nov 19. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

35. Berkowitz RS, Goldstein DP, Bernstein MR. Natural history of partial molar pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1985 Nov. 66(5):677-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

36. Fishman DA, Padilla LA, Keh P, Cohen L, Frederiksen M, Lurain JR. Management of twin pregnancies consisting of a complete hydatidiform mole and normal fetus. Obstet Gynecol. 1998 Apr. 91(4):546-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

37. Steller MA, Genest DR, Bernstein MR, Lage JM, Goldstein DP, Berkowitz RS. Natural history of twin pregnancy with complete hydatidiform mole and coexisting fetus. Obstet Gynecol. 1994 Jan. 83(1):35-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. Florio P, Severi FM, Cobellis L, et al. Serum activin A and inhibin A. New clinical markers for hydatidiform mole. Cancer. 2002 May 15. 94(10):2618-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

39. Fulop V, Mok SC, Berkowitz RS. Molecular biology of gestational trophoblastic neoplasia: a review. J Reprod Med. 2004 Jun. 49(6):415-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

40. Fukunaga M. Immunohistochemical characterization of p57(KIP2) expression in early hydatidiform moles. Hum Pathol. 2002 Dec. 33(12):1188-92. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

41. Genest DR, Dorfman DM, Castrillon DH. Ploidy and imprinting in hydatidiform moles. Complementary use of flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry of the imprinted gene product p57KIP2 to assist molar classification. J Reprod Med. 2002 May. 47(5):342-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

42. Thaker HM, Berlin A, Tycko B, et al. Immunohistochemistry for the imprinted gene product IPL/PHLDA2 for facilitating the differential diagnosis of complete hydatidiform mole. J Reprod Med. 2004 Aug. 49(8):630-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

43. Benachi A, Garritsen HS, Howard CM, Bennett P, Fisk NM. Absence of expression of RhD by human trophoblast cells. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998 Feb. 178 (2):294-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

44. Ngan HYS, Seckl MJ, Berkowitz RS, Xiang Y, Golfier F, Sekharan PK, et al. Update on the diagnosis and management of gestational trophoblastic disease. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2018 Oct. 143 Suppl 2:79-85. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

45. Eddy GL, Schlaerth JB, Nalick RH, Gaddis O Jr, Nakamura RM, Morrow CP. Postmolar trophoblastic disease in women using hormonal contraception with and without estrogen. Obstet Gynecol. 1983 Dec. 62(6):736-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

46. Agarwal R, Teoh S, Short D, et al. Chemotherapy and human chorionic gonadotropin concentrations 6 months after uterine evacuation of molar pregnancy: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2012 Jan 14. 379(9811):130-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

47. Sebire NJ, Foskett M, Short D, et al. Shortened duration of human chorionic gonadotrophin surveillance following complete or partial hydatidiform mole: evidence for revised protocol of a UK regional trophoblastic disease unit. BJOG. 2007 Jun. 114(6):760-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

48. Batorfi J, Vegh G, Szepesi J, et al. How long should patients be followed after molar pregnancy? Analysis of serum hCG follow-up data. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2004 Jan 15. 112(1):95-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

49. Feltmate CM, Batorfi J, Fulop V, et al. Human chorionic gonadotropin follow-up in patients with molar pregnancy: a time for reevaluation. Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Apr. 101(4):732-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

50. Coyle C, Short D, Jackson L, Sebire NJ, Kaur B, Harvey R, et al. What is the optimal duration of human chorionic gonadotrophin surveillance following evacuation of a molar pregnancy? A retrospective analysis on over 20,000 consecutive patients. Gynecol Oncol. 2018 Feb. 148 (2):254-257. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

51. Horowitz NS, Berkowitz RS, Elias KM. Considering changes in the recommended human chorionic gonadotropin monitoring after molar evacuation. Obstet Gynecol. 2020 Jan. 135 (1):9-11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

52. Garner EI, Lipson E, Bernstein MR, Goldstein DP, Berkowitz RS. Subsequent pregnancy experience in patients with molar pregnancy and gestational trophoblastic tumor. J Reprod Med. 2002 May. 47(5):380-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

53. Amezcua CA, Bahador A, Naidu YM, Felix JC. Expression of human telomerase reverse transcriptase, the catalytic subunit of telomerase, is associated with the development of persistent disease in complete hydatidiform moles. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001 Jun. 184(7):1441-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

54. Wang Q, Fu J, Hu L, Fang F, Xie L, Chen H, et al. Prophylactic chemotherapy for hydatidiform mole to prevent gestational trophoblastic neoplasia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Sep 11. 9:CD007289. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

55. Zhao P, Chen Q, Lu W. Comparison of different therapeutic strategies for complete hydatidiform mole in women at least 40 years old: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Cancer. 2017 Nov 9. 17 (1):733. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

Lisa E Moore, MD, MS, FACOG, RDMS Professor, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chief, Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Medical Director of Labor and Delivery, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Paul L Foster School of Medicine

Lisa E Moore, MD, MS, FACOG, RDMS is a member of the following medical societies: American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Central Association of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology, Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Society of Diagnostic Medical Sonography

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Enrique Hernandez, MD, FACOG, FACS Chairman, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, J Robert Willson Professor of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Science, Professor of Pathology, Temple University Hospital, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University

Enrique Hernandez, MD, FACOG, FACS is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Cancer Society, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, American College of Surgeons, American Gynecological and Obstetrical Society, American Medical Association, American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, Association of Professors of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Johns Hopkins Medical and Surgical Association, Pennsylvania Medical Society, Philadelphia County Medical Society, Society of Gynecologic Oncology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

A David Barnes, MD, MPH, PhD, FACOG Consulting Staff, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Mammoth Hospital (Mammoth Lakes, CA), Pioneer Valley Hospital (Salt Lake City, UT), Warren General Hospital (Warren, PA), and Mountain West Hospital (Tooele, UT)

A David Barnes, MD, MPH, PhD, FACOG is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Forensic Examiners Institute, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Association of Military Surgeons of the US, American Medical Association, Utah Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Leslie M Randall, MD, MAS, FACS Professor and Director, Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Diane Harris Wright Professor of Gynecologic Oncology Research, Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine

Leslie M Randall, MD, MAS, FACS is a member of the following medical societies: Academy for Innovation in Medical Education, American College of Surgeons, American Medical Association, American Society of Clinical Oncology, International Gynecologic Cancer Society, Society of Gynecologic Oncology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Jordan G Pritzker, MD, MBA, FACOG Adjunct Professor of Obstetrics/Gynecology, Hofstra North Shore-LIJ School of Medicine at Hofstra University; Attending Physician, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Long Island Jewish Medical Center; Medical Director, Aetna, Inc; Private Practice in Gynecology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

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