Committee on Practice Bulletins—Obstetrics. Macrosomia: ACOG Practice Bulletin, Number 216. Obstet Gynecol. 2020 Jan. 135 (1):e18-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Martin JA, Hamilton BE, Osterman MJK, Driscoll AK, Drake P. Births: final data for 2017. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2018 Nov. 67 (8):1-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kim SY, Sharma AJ, Sappenfield W, Wilson HG, Salihu HM. Association of maternal body mass index, excessive weight gain, and gestational diabetes mellitus with large-for-gestational-age births. Obstet Gynecol. 2014 Apr. 123 (4):737-44. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Okun N, Verma A, Mitchell BF, Flowerdew G. Relative importance of maternal constitutional factors and glucose intolerance of pregnancy in the development of newborn macrosomia. J Matern Fetal Med. 1997 Sep-Oct. 6(5):285-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Spellacy WN, Miller S, Winegar A, Peterson PQ. Macrosomia--maternal characteristics and infant complications. Obstet Gynecol. 1985 Aug. 66(2):158-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Boulet SL, Alexander GR, Salihu HM, Pass M. Macrosomic births in the united states: determinants, outcomes, and proposed grades of risk. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003 May. 188 (5):1372-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Stuebe AM, Landon MB, Lai Y, et al. Maternal BMI, glucose tolerance, and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012 Jul. 207 (1):62.e1-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Catalano PM, Thomas A, Huston-Presley L, Amini SB. Increased fetal adiposity: a very sensitive marker of abnormal in utero development. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Dec. 189 (6):1698-704. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Geraghty AA, Alberdi G, O'Sullivan EJ, O'Brien EC, Crosbie B, Twomey PJ, et al. Maternal Blood Lipid Profile during Pregnancy and Associations with Child Adiposity: Findings from the ROLO Study. PLoS One. 2016 Aug 25. 11 (8):e0161206. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
McFarland MB, Trylovich CG, Langer O. Anthropometric differences in macrosomic infants of diabetic and nondiabetic mothers. J Matern Fetal Med. 1998 Nov-Dec. 7 (6):292-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Modanlou HD, Komatsu G, Dorchester W, Freeman RK, Bosu SK. Large-for-gestational-age neonates: anthropometric reasons for shoulder dystocia. Obstet Gynecol. 1982 Oct. 60 (4):417-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
McFarland LV, Raskin M, Daling JR, Benedetti TJ. Erb/Duchenne's palsy: a consequence of fetal macrosomia and method of delivery. Obstet Gynecol. 1986 Dec. 68(6):784-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Mondestin MA, Ananth CV, Smulian JC, Vintzileos AM. Birth weight and fetal death in the United States: the effect of maternal diabetes during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002 Oct. 187(4):922-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Catalano PM, Hauguel-De Mouzon S. Is it time to revisit the Pedersen hypothesis in the face of the obesity epidemic?. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2011 Jun. 204 (6):479-87. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Marshall NE, Biel FM, Boone-Heinonen J, Dukhovny D, Caughey AB, Snowden JM. The association between maternal height, body mass index, and perinatal outcomes. Am J Perinatol. 2019 May. 36 (6):632-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Black MH, Sacks DA, Xiang AH, Lawrence JM. The relative contribution of prepregnancy overweight and obesity, gestational weight gain, and IADPSG-defined gestational diabetes mellitus to fetal overgrowth. Diabetes Care. 2013 Jan. 36 (1):56-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Duryea EL, Hawkins JS, McIntire DD, Casey BM, Leveno KJ. A revised birth weight reference for the United States. Obstet Gynecol. 2014 Jul. 124 (1):16-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Martin JA, Hamilton BE, Osterman MJ, Driscoll AK, Mathews TJ. Births: Final Data for 2015. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2017 Jan. 66 (1):1. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hermann GM, Dallas LM, Haskell SE, Roghair RD. Neonatal macrosomia is an independent risk factor for adult metabolic syndrome. Neonatology. 2010. 98 (3):238-44. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Tian JY, Cheng Q, Song XM, Li G, Jiang GX, Gu YY, et al. Birth weight and risk of type 2 diabetes, abdominal obesity and hypertension among Chinese adults. Eur J Endocrinol. 2006 Oct. 155 (4):601-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Harder T, Rodekamp E, Schellong K, Dudenhausen JW, Plagemann A. Birth weight and subsequent risk of type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 2007 Apr 15. 165 (8):849-57. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gauthaman N, Walters S, Tribe IA, Goldsmith L, Doumouchtsis SK. Shoulder dystocia and associated manoeuvres as risk factors for perineal trauma. Int Urogynecol J. 2016 Apr. 27 (4):571-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
King JR, Korst LM, Miller DA, Ouzounian JG. Increased composite maternal and neonatal morbidity associated with ultrasonographically suspected fetal macrosomia. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012 Oct. 25 (10):1953-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Mulik V, Usha Kiran TS, Bethal J, Bhal PS. The outcome of macrosomic fetuses in a low risk primigravid population. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2003 Jan. 80(1):15-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Perlow JH, Wigton T, Hart J, Strassner HT, Nageotte MP, Wolk BM. Birth trauma. A five-year review of incidence and associated perinatal factors. J Reprod Med. 1996 Oct. 41 (10):754-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Catalano PM. Management of obesity in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2007 Feb. 109(2 Pt 1):419-33. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gaudet L, Ferraro ZM, Wen SW, et al. Maternal Obesity and Occurrence of Fetal Macrosomia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Biomed Res Int. 2014. 2014:640291. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Akanmode AM, Mahdy H. Macrosomia. StatPearls. Available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557577/. 2020 Aug 23; Accessed: December 15, 2020.
GIBSON JR, McKEOWN T. Observations on all births (23, 970) in Birmingham, 1947. VII. Effect of changing family size on infant mortality. Br J Soc Med. 1952 Jul. 6(3):183-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Thomson AM, Billewicz WZ, Hytten FE. The assessment of fetal growth. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw. 1968 Sep. 75(9):903-16. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Modanlou HD, Dorchester WL, Thorosian A, Freeman RK. Macrosomia--maternal, fetal, and neonatal implications. Obstet Gynecol. 1980 Apr. 55 (4):420-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bowers K, Laughon SK, Kiely M, Brite J, Chen Z, Zhang C. Gestational diabetes, pre-pregnancy obesity and pregnancy weight gain in relation to excess fetal growth: variations by race/ethnicity. Diabetologia. 2013 Jun. 56 (6):1263-71. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Di Renzo GC, Rosati A, Sarti RD, Cruciani L, Cutuli AM. Does fetal sex affect pregnancy outcome?. Gend Med. 2007 Mar. 4(1):19-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hackmon R, Bornstein E, Ferber A, Horani J, O'Reilly Green CP, Divon MY. Combined analysis with amniotic fluid index and estimated fetal weight for prediction of severe macrosomia at birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007 Apr. 196(4):333.e1-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ballesta-Castillejos A, Gómez-Salgado J, Rodríguez-Almagro J, Ortiz-Esquinas I, Hernández-Martínez A. Relationship between maternal body mass index and obstetric and perinatal complications. J Clin Med. 2020 Mar 5. 9 (3):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Champion ML, Harper LM. Gestational weight gain: update on outcomes and interventions. Curr Diab Rep. 2020 Feb 27. 20 (3):11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Goetzinger KR, Tuuli MG, Odibo AO, Roehl KA, Macones GA, Cahill AG. Screening for fetal growth disorders by clinical exam in the era of obesity. J Perinatol. 2013 May. 33 (5):352-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Sparks TN, Cheng YW, McLaughlin B, Esakoff TF, Caughey AB. Fundal height: a useful screening tool for fetal growth?. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2011 May. 24 (5):708-12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Smith GC, Smith MF, McNay MB, Fleming JE. The relation between fetal abdominal circumference and birthweight: findings in 3512 pregnancies. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1997 Feb. 104(2):186-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chauhan SP, Hendrix NW, Magann EF, Morrison JC, Kenney SP, Devoe LD. Limitations of clinical and sonographic estimates of birth weight: experience with 1034 parturients. Obstet Gynecol. 1998 Jan. 91(1):72-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Raio L, Ghezzi F, Di Naro E, et al. Perinatal outcome of fetuses with a birth weight greater than 4500 g: an analysis of 3356 cases. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2003 Aug 15. 109(2):160-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Moraitis AA, Wood AM, Fleming M, Smith GC. Birth weight percentile and the risk of term perinatal death. Obstet Gynecol. 2014 Aug. 124 (2 Pt 1):274-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Linder N, Lahat Y, Kogan A, et al. Macrosomic newborns of non-diabetic mothers: anthropometric measurements and neonatal complications. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2014 Sep. 99 (5):F353-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Landon MB, Spong CY, Thom E, et al. A multicenter, randomized trial of treatment for mild gestational diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2009 Oct 1. 361 (14):1339-48. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gillman MW, Oakey H, Baghurst PA, Volkmer RE, Robinson JS, Crowther CA. Effect of treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus on obesity in the next generation. Diabetes Care. 2010 May. 33 (5):964-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Committee on Practice Bulletins--Obstetrics. Practice Bulletin No. 137: Gestational diabetes mellitus. Obstet Gynecol. 2013 Aug. 122 (2 Pt 1):406-16. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Faschingbauer F, Dammer U, Raabe E, et al. Sonographic weight estimation in fetal macrosomia: influence of the time interval between estimation and delivery. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2014 Dec 23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kritzer S, Magner K, Warshak CR. Increasing maternal body mass index and the accuracy of sonographic estimation of fetal weight near delivery. J Ultrasound Med. 2014 Dec. 33(12):2173-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Alsulyman OM, Ouzounian JG, Kjos SL. The accuracy of intrapartum ultrasonographic fetal weight estimation in diabetic pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997 Sep. 177 (3):503-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Jazayeri A, Heffron JA, Phillips R, Spellacy WN. Macrosomia prediction using ultrasound fetal abdominal circumference of 35 centimeters or more. Obstet Gynecol. 1999 Apr. 93(4):523-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ben-Haroush A, Yogev Y, Bar J, et al. Accuracy of sonographically estimated fetal weight in 840 women with different pregnancy complications prior to induction of labor. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Feb. 23(2):172-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hoopmann M, Abele H, Wagner N, Wallwiener D, Kagan KO. Performance of 36 different weight estimation formulae in fetuses with macrosomia. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2010. 27 (4):204-13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Scioscia M, Vimercati A, Ceci O, Vicino M, Selvaggi LE. Estimation of birth weight by two-dimensional ultrasonography: a critical appraisal of its accuracy. Obstet Gynecol. 2008 Jan. 111 (1):57-65. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
De Reu PA, Smits LJ, Oosterbaan HP, Nijhuis JG. Value of a single early third trimester fetal biometry for the prediction of birth weight deviations in a low risk population. J Perinat Med. 2008. 36(4):324-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Coomarasamy A, Connock J, Thornton J, Khan KS. Accuracy of ultrasound biometry in the prediction of macrosomia: a systematic quantitative review. BJOG. 2005. 112:1461-66.
Loetworawanit R, Chittacharoen A, Sututvoravut, S. Intrapartum fetal abdominal circumference by ultrasonography for predicting fetal macrosomia. J Med Assoc Thai. 2006. Suppl 4:S60-4.
Bicocca MJ, Le TN, Zhang CC, et al. Identification of newborns with birthweight ≥ 4,500g: Ultrasound within one- vs. two weeks of delivery. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2020 Jun. 249:47-53. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Boulvain M, Senat MV, Perrotin F, et al. Induction of labour versus expectant management for large-for-date fetuses: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2015 Jun 27. 385 (9987):2600-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Boulvain M, Irion O, Dowswell T, Thornton JG. Induction of labour at or near term for suspected fetal macrosomia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 May 22. CD000938. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Doty MS, Chen HY, Sibai BM, Chauhan SP. Maternal and neonatal morbidity associated with early term delivery of large-for-gestational-age but nonmacrosomic neonates. Obstet Gynecol. 2019 Jun. 133 (6):1160-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Rouse DJ, Owen J, Goldenberg RL, Cliver SP. The effectiveness and costs of elective cesarean delivery for fetal macrosomia diagnosed by ultrasound. JAMA. 1996 Nov 13. 276(18):1480-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Acker DB, Gregory KD, Sachs BP, Friedman EA. Risk factors for Erb-Duchenne palsy. Obstet Gynecol. 1988 Mar. 71(3 Pt 1):389-92. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Buchanan TA, Kjos SL, Montoro MN, et al. Use of fetal ultrasound to select metabolic therapy for pregnancies complicated by mild gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1994 Apr. 17(4):275-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Walkinshaw SA. Dietary regulation for 'gestational diabetes'. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000. (2):CD000070. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Yamamoto JM, Kellett JE, Balsells M, et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus and diet: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials examining the impact of modified dietary interventions on maternal glucose control and neonatal birth weight. Diabetes Care. 2018 Jul. 41 (7):1346-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
ACOG Committee Opinion number 315, September 2005. Obesity in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2005 Sep. 106(3):671-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. Available at https://health.gov/our-work/physical-activity/current-guidelines. 2020 Jan 30; Accessed: December 16, 2020.
Davenport MH, Meah VL, Ruchat SM, et al. Impact of prenatal exercise on neonatal and childhood outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med. 2018 Nov. 52 (21):1386-96. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wiebe HW, Boulé NG, Chari R, Davenport MH. The effect of supervised prenatal exercise on fetal growth: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol. 2015 May. 125 (5):1185-94. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Boney CM, Verma A, Tucker R, Vohr BR. Metabolic syndrome in childhood: association with birth weight, maternal obesity, and gestational diabetes mellitus. Pediatrics. 2005 Mar. 115(3):e290-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Jovanovic-Peterson L, Peterson CM, Reed GF, Metzger BE, Mills JL, Knopp RH. Maternal postprandial glucose levels and infant birth weight: the Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development--Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1991 Jan. 164(1 Pt 1):103-11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Maggard MA, Yermilov I, Maglione M, et al. Pregnancy and fertility following bariatric surgery: a systematic review. JAMA. 2008. 300(19):2286-96.
Karmon A, Sheiner E. Pregnancy after bariatric surgery: a comprehensive review. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2008 May. 277(5):381-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Johansson K, Cnattingius S, Näslund I, et al. Outcomes of pregnancy after bariatric surgery. N Engl J Med. 2015 Feb 26. 372 (9):814-24. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Catalano PM, Mele L, Landon MB, et al. Inadequate weight gain in overweight and obese pregnant women: what is the effect on fetal growth?. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2014 Aug. 211 (2):137.e1-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
ACOG Practice Bulletin. Clinical Management Guidelines for Obstetrician-Gynecologists. Number 60, March 2005. Pregestational diabetes mellitus. Obstet Gynecol. 2005 Mar. 105(3):675-85. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cheng Y, Sparks T, Laros R Jr, Nicholson J, Caughey A. Impending macrosomia: will induction of labour modify the risk of caesarean delivery?. BJOG. 2012 Mar. 119(4):402-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Schrauwers C, Dekker G. Maternal and perinatal outcome in obese pregnant patients. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009 Mar. 22(3):218-26. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].