Enterocele and Massive Vaginal Eversion Treatment & Management

The general approach to treatment should be based on the patient's medical and surgical history as well as symptoms, goals of care, and desire for sexual function. It is the clinician's responsibility to explain the various options that are available and guide patients toward a treatment that is best for the individual patient.

If necessary, consultation for bladder or bowel issues may be managed in a multidisciplinary effort with urology and colorectal surgery.

Conservative treatment with observation, pelvic floor physical therapy, or a pessary is often used as first-line management, with surgical options for those who fail or do not desire these options.

Currently, no medications are used to reverse the process of pelvic organ prolapse. Medications such as vaginal estrogen, lubricants, and barrier ointments may be used to alleviate symptoms and to prevent the breakdown of the vaginal epithelium.

Surgical options include reconstructive and obliterative procedures. Vaginal approaches, traditionally using native tissue, have good results and may be offered to patients, especially those who have a complicated surgical history or who may not tolerate an abdominal procedure. These approaches include the uterosacral ligament, sacrospinous ligament, and iliococcygeus fixation. Abdominal sacral colpopexy is considered the gold standard for reconstructive repair, with minimally invasive sacral colpopexy shown to be as effective. ^[41]

Obliterative procedures have excellent results, but patients will not have functional use of the vagina for penetrative intercourse. This option may be offered to all patients but is particularly useful in older patients with high surgical risk, which reduces the likelihood of subsequent regret.

Although transvaginal mesh with or without kits gained popularity during the mid 2000s, many products were removed from the market following the 2011 US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announcement that identified serious safety and effectiveness concerns. ^[42]  In 2016, surgical mesh products for transvaginal repair of pelvic organ prolapse (POP) were reclassified as class 3 products (high risk).

In April 2019, manufacturers of all transvaginal mesh products indicated for transvaginal repair of POP were ordered by the FDA to halt the sale and distribution of these products in the United States. ^[43]  It was determined that the premarket approval applications failed to demonstrate an acceptable long-term benefit-to-risk profile for surgery compared with transvaginal native tissue prolapse repair, which is the standard for class 3 surgical devices. This FDA announcement does not apply to transabdominal mesh for prolapse repair (eg, sacral colpopexy) nor mesh placed transvaginally for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence (also known as midurethral slings).

Supporting the epithelial environment in the vagina with estrogen, if no contraindication exists, helps minor symptoms of vaginal irritation and discomfort. Estrogen assists the healing process if ulceration is present and prepares the vagina for subsequent pessary use. Topical preparations are preferred because of their rapid effect and limited systemic absorption. The authors use conjugated equine estrogens or estradiol cream 2-3 times a week for at least 4-6 weeks until an effect can be noted. This will only help with symptomatology and does not treat the prolapse itself. 

A pessary may be offered as primary treatment or to temporize until surgery for the prolapse can be completed. The primary indication for fitting a pessary is the nonsurgical relief of symptoms associated with pelvic organ prolapse. In a long-term assessment of quality of life, Tenfelde et al report improved quality of life with the use of pessaries over a mean of 4½ years (range of 1-15). ^[44]

Many different types of pessaries are available and used for prolapse (see image below).

In a survey among American Urogynecologic Society (AUGS) members, 78% of providers tailored their choice of pessary to the specific pelvic support defect. Most respondents generally favored a space-occupying rather than supportive pessary. ^[45]  Supportive pessaries are defined as those that involve a spring mechanism (ring, Gehrung, lever-type pessary) and are thought to be supported by the symphysis pubis. Space-occupying pessaries are defined as supported by the creation of suction between the pessary and vaginal wall (eg, cube) or by providing a diameter larger than the genital hiatus (donut, InflatoBall, Shaatz) or by both mechanisms (Gellhorn).

A prospective study conducted by Wu et al identified younger age, higher parity, a history of pelvic surgery, and stress urinary incontinence as characteristics associated with initial failure of pessary fitting. Interestingly, the degree of pelvic organ prolapse, hormone replacement therapy, and adequacy of perineal body did not predict failure of initial fitting, but a short vagina was a risk factor for unsuccessful pessary use. ^{[46, 47]} Maintaining pessary rates vary from 41% to 64%, and the reasons for discontinuation are usually associated with inconvenience or inadequate relief of symptoms (40%), difficulty in removal (23%), pessary fell out (6%), and inability to urinate (5%). ^[48]

Longitudinal data from the US Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Service over a 9-year period on 4,019 women with diagnosed pelvic organ prolapse demonstrated a pessary continuation rate of 69%, with 3% developing vesicovaginal or rectovaginal fistulas and 5% having a mechanical genitourinary device complication. Twelve percent of women underwent surgery for prolapse repair by 1 year, with 24% by 9 years. ^[49]  Studies have shown that the duration of use is longest with Gellhorn pessaries, in older patients, and with the use of vaginal estrogen. ^[50]

Evaluation of vaginal epithelium to assess estrogen status is necessary and vital in order to prevent pessary-associated erosion and ulceration in an atrophic vagina. Thus, the use of concurrent vaginal estrogen therapy is recommended in the absence of contraindications. ^[45]  

Patients who choose a pessary as treatment of their prolapse may be followed closely and examined at regular intervals. Common complications of long-term pessary use include vaginal discharge and bleeding, and epithelial erosion/abrasion. Serious complications of pessary use are usually seen in neglected patients and can include infections, fistulas, complete erosions, or incarcerations.  With that said, it is safe for patients to maintain their own pessaries if they have the dexterity and desire. ^[51]

As previously stated, pelvic floor physical therapy is also a conservative treatment for pelvic organ prolapse in the early stages; however, it is unlikely to help in cases of massive vaginal eversion. 

Surgery to repair enterocele and apical prolapse should address the underlying defect-specific pathophysiology of the patient's condition and should restore normal anatomy. This includes addressing all 3 levels of vaginal support as discussed previously (see Overview/Pathophysiology), with restoration of the normal vaginal axis and the integrity of the endopelvic fascia in all of its compartments.

There are several options for the treatment of vaginal eversion. Changes and modifications have been made to the original procedures; however, the paramount principles are still present and include the attachment of the vaginal apex to level I support. Therefore, this manuscript is limited to discussing these surgical principles as they relate to management of the failure of level I (apical) support.

Pelvic reconstructive procedures can be vaginal, abdominal, laparoscopic, robot-assisted, or a combination of these. Surgical techniques can be reconstructive, with the aim of restoring anatomy and maintaining the potential for coitus, or can be obliterative that by definition eliminate prolapse at the expense of future coital function.

The goals of surgical treatment of vaginal eversion include, but are not limited to improvement of quality of life, restoration of anatomy (with the exception of colpocleisis of the vaginal vault), and prevention of reoccurrence of prolapse.

Preoperative workup is dependent on patient medical comorbidities and is beyond the scope of this article.  This has been discussed briefly in Workup/Laboratory Studies and Workup/Imaging Studies.

Preoperative bowel preparation was historically employed. However, a single-blind, randomized, controlled trial of mechanical bowel preparation conferred no benefit regarding surgeons' intraoperative assessment of the operative field. Furthermore, it noted decreased patient satisfaction, and increased abdominal symptoms in the postoperative period in patients who underwent bowel preparation before reconstructive vaginal prolapse surgery. ^[52]

A first-generation cephalosporin is administered as a preoperative antibiotic prior to the time of the first incision; alternatives exist in the case of allergies. ^[53]  Patients are typically placed in lithotomy position with stirrups to allow access to the vaginal canal and/or abdomen depending on the procedure. All reconstructive procedures begin with careful examination under anesthesia, and a Foley catheter is placed after the patient is appropriately prepped and draped. 

When including hysterectomy as a treatment modality for uterovaginal prolapse, preservation, restoration, and strengthening of pelvic support is of primary importance in order to avoid future vaginal vault prolapse. ^[54] Attention should be paid to reattachment of the cardinal-uterosacral ligament complex to the posterolateral vaginal apex, with a uterosacral ligament attachment thus reestablishing its continuity with the rectovaginal fascia. The use of permanent sutures for the uterosacral ligament colpopexy has been traditionally advocated. Another option is to use prolonged delayed absorbable suture, which can avoid some of the post-surgical problems encountered with suture exposure and formation of granulation tissue at the vaginal apex. If the uterosacral ligaments are of insufficient strength, one may consider a sacrospinous ligament fixation or abdominal sacral colpopexy instead.

Culdoplasty

Culdoplasty is performed per surgeon preference. Traditional culdoplasties include the McCall, Moschcowitz, and Halban methods. Although not idescribed in detail in this article, the McCall culdoplasty approximates (plicates) the uterosacral ligaments in the midline. The external McCall stitch also incorporates the posterior vaginal apex. The Moschcowitz culdoplasty closes the pelvic peritoneum with purse-string sutures that incorporate both anterior and posterior peritoneum along with the uterosacral ligaments. The Halban culdoplasty shortens each uterosacral ligament using a reefing stitch, with vertical purse-string sutures interposed between the uterosacral sutures. Other procedures exist but are generally variations of these procedures. Culdoplasty serves to close the posterior cul-de-sac and further direct the vaginal apex toward the hollow of the sacrum. It does not, however, address the underlying endopelvic fascial defects at the vaginal apex, as discussed previously and therefore have been abandoned by some.

Adequate closure of the cuff serves to reestablish continuity of the endopelvic fascia at the apex by reapproximating pubocervical fascia with rectovaginal fascia at the most proximal end. The combined effect of proper orientation of the upper vagina in a near-horizontal plane (in the erect position) and the reestablishment of endopelvic fascial integrity as described constitutes both the treatment and prevention of enterocele. All significant pelvic floor defects need to be addressed during this surgery to decrease the likelihood of recurrence. Repair of other pelvic floor defects may be performed vaginally and may include anterior repair, paravaginal repair, posterior repair, rectovaginal septal reconstruction, and/or perineal repair as needed.

Vaginal approaches

Vaginal approaches to reconstruction of the prolapsed vaginal vault (following prior hysterectomy) include sacrospinous ligament fixation (unilateral or bilateral), bilateral iliococcygeus fascia suspension, or uterosacral vaginal vault suspension. Each of these reconstructive procedures addresses level I (apical) support. 

Sacrospinous ligament fixation begins with incision of the vagina along the anterior or posterior wall, or at the apex depending on the technique. ^{[55, 56]}  If an enterocele is encountered, it may be completely dissected and opened. The bowel contents are reduced, and the redundant peritoneum is excised. Alternatively, the sac may be left as is, since the most important part of the repair is the proper identification and reapproximation of the endopelvic fascial defect at the apex. Regardless of vaginal incision (anterior, posterior, apical) the vaginal epithelium is dissected away from the underlying connective tissue and the pararectal space is entered in a position overlying the ischial spine. The space is developed, the sacrospinous ligament within the coccygeus muscle is palpated, and the surrounding area is cleared off gently.  Several instruments are available to penetrate the ligament for adequate suspension, including the Deschamps ligature carrier, the Miya Hook, the Nichols-Veronikis ligature carrier, the Capio device (see image below), and the EndoStitch.

Take care to avoid injury to the inferior gluteal artery, pudendal neurovascular bundle, and the sciatic nerve (see image below) by staying inferior and medial along the ligament.

Avoid dissection superior to the coccygeus muscle and lateral to the ischial spine. Do not place retractors beyond the sacrospinous ligament and never pass the ligature carrier/needle posterior to the ligament because of risk of vascular injury of the inferior gluteal artery. The ligature carrier should pierce the ligament 1.5-2 finger breadths (2-3 cm) medial to the ischial spine, without encircling the coccygeus muscle (see image below).

Permanent, delayed absorbable, or a combination of both suture types (see image below) may be used. They are sutured to the vagina, incorporating endopelvic fascia.  If permanent sutures are used, excluding vaginal epithelium is important because of the high incidence of granulation tissue at the site of the surgical knots.  Avoid suture bridging when tying down these sutures.

This repair was traditionally performed in a unilateral fashion to the right sacropspinous ligament. Newer techniques such as the Michigan Four-Wall technique expand upon traditional principles with some new modifications. ^[55]  Some physicians have advocated bilateral sacrospinous ligament fixation. ^[57] The authors prefer bilateral sacrospinous attachment in defect-directed repair and reconstruction of the rectovaginal septum when adequate uterosacral ligaments are not found. Exercise clinical judgment intraoperatively to determine whether this can be accomplished without undue tension. Consider the potential benefits in view of the potential increase in risk, both from intraoperative injury and the long-term effect on vaginal anatomy. If bilateral sacrospinous ligament fixation is utilized, the anterior and posterior transverse fascial edges should be approximated in the midline to complete the repair eliminating and preventing future enterocele.

Uterosacral vaginal vault suspension with fascial reconstruction aims to restore normal level I anatomy and is almost always done bilaterally (see image below).

This does not result in lateral deviation of the proximal vagina or in the posterior displacement observed with sacrospinous ligament fixation. Uterosacral ligament reattachment may be performed vaginally by the transperitoneal approach as depicted below, but it can also be accomplished retroperitoneally without the need to open the enterocele sac. ^{[58, 59]} It may be used immediately following a vaginal hysterectomy or for post-hysterectomy vaginal prolapse.

In posthysterectomy vaginal vault prolapse, the posterior vagina is opened, the enterocele sac is identified and excised, the peritoneal cavity is entered and the bowel packed away. It is the author's preference to utilize a lighted retractor to help with intraperitoneal visualization. The uterosacral ligaments are identified first distally and then more proximally, noting the level of the ischial spine. Identification may be aided by inserting a finger rectally and palpating the proximal rectovaginal fascia or by grasping the vaginal cuff with an Allis clamp and applying gentle traction toward the contralateral leg. The proximal aspect of the ligament at the level of the ischial spine is used for resuspension to exclude the defect that is responsible for the prolapse and constitutes a "high uterosacral ligament suspension (colpopexy)." Permanent or delayed absorbable sutures are used to grasp and hold each ligament separately; in our practice, 2 are placed on each side. 

After assessing for the integrity of ureteral function, the ligaments are sutured to the rectovaginal fascia laterally near the apex and also incorporated into the proximal lateral pubocervical fascia anteriorly with or without midline plication depending on defects present. The authors prefer at least 2 sutures in each uterosacral ligament with reapproximation of the pubocervical and rectovaginal fascia across the vaginal apex to correct and prevent enterocele. Posterior and perineal repair may be performed as needed. Take care to ensure the integrity of the ureters by carefully palpating the uterosacral ligament, staying medial and inferior to the ureter, and liberally using cystoscopy to verify adequate urine efflux.

Iliococcygeus fixation suspends the vaginal apex to the unilateral or bilateral parietal fascia of the iliococcygeus muscle (see image below). ^[60]  Because this procedure is carried out caudad to the ischial spine, there is minimal risk to the ureter and neurovascular structures in the pelvis. ^[61]  Similar to the sacrospinous ligament suspension, the pararectal space is approached through an incision in the posterior vaginal epithelium. The epithelium is dissected away from the underlying connective tissue with entry into the bilateral pararectal spaces. Once the ischial spine is identified, sutures can be placed through the fascia of the iliococcygeus muscle caudad to the ischial spines. The vaginal epithelium and underlying endopelvic fascia are then sutured bilaterally to the iliococcygeus fascia and the apex tied down. The authors prefer to use this technique if access to the sacrospinous ligaments is limited from scarring or if the vaginal epithelium is shortened. 

Colpocleisis without hysterectomy (LeFort)

Colpocleisis without hysterectomy (LeFort) involves retention of the uterus, and therefore, although controversial, it is the author's preference to sample the endometrium either with dilatation and curettage (D&C) or preoperative endometrial biopsy. ^[62]   The procedure is relatively contraindicated in patients with postmenopausal bleeding. This procedure may be performed under local or regional anesthesia to accommodate a patient who is frail.

Rectangular strips of both anterior and posterior vagina are obtained, extending from 2 cm distal to the cervix to the level of the bladder neck anteriorly and similarly on the posterior vaginal wall. Sufficient vagina is left laterally to fashion bilateral canals for drainage (see image below).

Dissection should be broad and leave adequate endopelvic fascia anteriorly and posteriorly to retain strong tissue for reapproximation. Excellent hemostasis is required and achieved by judicious electrocautery.

The anterior and posterior denuded vaginal walls are sutured with either an interrupted or continuous delayed absorbable suture in a progressive manner to invert the prolapsed vagina. The lateral vaginal edges are reapproximated so that lateral tunnels are formed throughout the length of the vagina on either side. If actual or occult incontinence has been demonstrated preoperatively, a retropubic or transobturator midurethral sling may be performed by adding a separate midline vaginal incision at this time and continuing as per routine for these procedures. 

For posthysterectomy vault prolapse, a colpocleisis of the vaginal vault is performed in a similar fashion, except that no epithelium-lined tunnels are created. Therefore the entire vaginal epithelium may be dissected off in strips, and the vaginal endopelvic fascia is progressively inverted by concentric purse-string sutures of delayed absorbable material once meticulous hemostasis is achieved. The urethra and bladder neck are managed in the same way as described for a LeFort procedure. 

Whether performing a LeFort or a colpocleisis of the vaginal vault, care must be exercised to not carry the anterior epithelial excision too far distal for fear of opening the bladder neck and urethra by the posterior displacement the anterior segment will undergo when the colpocleisis is complete. Severe postoperative urinary incontinence may result if this occurs.

Transvaginal mesh for POP repair

Trocar-based vaginal kits were previously popular in the management of vaginal vault prolapse in the beginning of this century and were advocated as a safe and durable treatment option for vaginal prolapse. Many of these kits were removed from the market in 2008, and trocar-less mesh kits were still being used. As noted above (see Treatment/Approach Considerations), the selling and distribution of all of these products was stopped by the FDA in April 2019.

It is still possible for a surgeon to fashion his or her own mesh to be placed transvaginally to augment a repair in the anterior or posterior compartment. This mesh is typically anchored to the sacrospinous ligaments. The topic of detailed mesh-based repairs is beyond the scope of this article.

Biologic grafts

Biologic grafts have also been employed for augmentation of pelvic organ prolapse. While these grafts are more commonly used in anterior or posterior repairs, they may be used as an adjunct during an apical vaginal vault repair.  Their use in anterior and posterior vaginal wall prolapse is beyond the scope of this article. These grafts may be categorized as follows ^[60] :

• Autologous: From the patient's own tissue, typically rectus fascia or fascia lata
• Allografts: From post-mortem tissue banks of human tissue
• Xenografts: From other species such as porcine dermis, porcine small intestine, and bovine pericardium

Abdominal approaches

Abdominal approaches to vaginal vault suspension include sacral colpopexy or uterosacral reattachment. The abdominal approach allows for concomitant abdominal procedures to be performed, such as paravaginal repair, Burch colposuspension, or removal of adnexa (depending upon associated pelvic floor defects, preoperative urodynamics, concomitant pelvic pathology, and medical history). Occasionally, concurrent vaginal surgery is required to complete adequate reconstruction. In either technique, carefully exclude enterocele and repair the enterocele if found. When performing defect-specific repair, this is accomplished abdominally by incising the peritoneum at the vaginal cuff and identifying the endopelvic fascia. If a break is found, it is repaired with interrupted sutures (see image below). Conversely, a traditional Moschcowitz or Halban procedure may be completed, though this is non-anatomic and not our preferred technique.

Abdominal sacral colpopexy is defined as suspension of the vaginal apex to the anterior longitudinal ligament of the sacrum using a graft, with possible incorporation of the graft into the fibromuscular layer of the anterior and/or posterior vaginal walls. ^[60]   This may be performed with a biologic graft but is most often performed with a permanent type 1 polypropylene mesh. ^[63]  This is typically configured in a "Y" configuration, with the distal end of the graft attached to the anterior and posterior aspects of the vaginal cuff, the crux of the "Y" at the vaginal cuff, and the proximal (tail) end attached to the anterior longitudinal ligament. (see image below). There are several premade "Y" grafts available, or it may be fashioned in the operating room by multiple pieces of mesh and suture.

After entry into the peritoneal cavity, whether via laparotomy, laparoscopically, or robotically assisted, relevant landmarks are identified, including ureters, rectosigmoid, and bladder reflection. The rectosigmoid is retracted to the left side of the peritoneal cavity to gain access to the sacrum. The sacral promontory is identified, and the retroperitoneal space is entered with a window created over the anterior longitudinal ligament. Dissection is carried down to the S1-S2 vertebral level. At this point the peritoneum may be divided along the right pelvic side wall down to the vagina or a tunnel to the vaginal apex can be created. Care must be taken during these steps to avoid the rectosigmoid and the right ureter. Cautiously proceed with the dissection in the presacral space and pay attention to avoid damage to the middle sacral vessels. The bladder and rectum are then dissected from the anterior and posterior vagina, respectively. This vaginal dissection may be done prior to the sacral dissection depending on intra-abdominal pathology and surgeon preference.  

Each arm of the mesh is attached to the vagina with a variable number of interrupted permanent or delayed absorbable sutures, taking care to incorporate endopelvic fascia in each bite. The posterior mesh arm may be attached as low as the perineum for extra support termed "sacral colpoperineopexy." ^[60]  The proximal aspect of the mesh is attached to the anterior sacral fascia at the level of S1-S2 with 2-3 permanent sutures (see images below).

Attachment of the mesh to the sacral promontory may minimize vascular and/or neurologic injuries, but it also results in an unnatural anteflexion of the vaginal apex. Some have felt that this predisposes the posterior compartment to development or recurrence of enteroceles. There is also concern about the increased risk of spondylodiscitis if the promontory is chosen as the attachment site, and we avoid this level in our own practice. The anterior longitudinal ligament is 2 mm thick, and the sacral nerve roots are located 2.5 cm below the promontory and 2 cm to the right of midline; therefore, placement into the center of the ligament is critical while avoiding the middle sacral vessels. ^[64]

Reperitonealization is used to avoid subsequent entrapment of the bowel within the mesh. This may be accomplished by approximating the 2 sides of peritoneum previously dissected or by placing the mesh through the previously created tunnel, then fixing it to the sacrum with sutures. Ensure that there is no undue tension on the vagina with the mesh in place.

Data from the Colpopexy and Urinary Reduction Efforts (CARE) randomized trial evaluated the use of Burch colposuspension at the time of sacrocolpopexy in women who were stress continent. Patients who received a prophylactic Burch colposuspension were about half as likely to develop stress urinary incontinence after the surgery. No differences were noted in the development of postoperative urgency symptoms in the 2 groups. ^[65]

As mentioned above, sacral colpopexy has been reported via the laparoscopic approach with or without robotic assistance. These are useful surgical approaches if the surgeon takes care not to alter the operation in a way that would fundamentally change and weaken the reconstruction.

Advantages of robotic surgery include improved (3-dimensional) visualization of the operative field with increased dexterity allowing more precise movements. ^[66]  Data suggest that this approach combines the advantages of open sacrocolpopexy with decreased hospital stay, less blood loss, low complication and conversion rates, and high rates of patient satisfaction. ^{[67, 68]}

Studies showed that when the robotic approach is compared with traditional (“straight stick”) laparoscopy, it has similar outcomes but is noted to take longer and to be associated with significantly increased cost. ^[69]  

High uterosacral reattachment is performed using the same principles discussed previously under vaginal approaches. Reconstruction of the continuity of endopelvic fascia is the cornerstone of therapy. Maintain an adequate hiatus between the sacrum and vagina after the sutures are tied by allowing 2 finger breadths to leave sufficient space for the sigmoid colon. Avoid upward tension on the vagina.

As discussed previously, the uterosacral vaginal vault suspension with fascial reconstruction may be performed vaginally or abdominally. Using the same principles, this procedure is amenable to the laparoscopic approach as well (see image below).

 

The authors strongly recommend following all reconstructive surgical procedures with cystoscopy for evaluation of bilateral ureteral patency and bladder integrity. Intraoperative identification and immediate repair of ureteral/bladder injury is associated with reduced morbidity and improved outcomes. A rectal examination should also be performed to evaluate for defects and to be sure there are no sutures in the rectum.

Traditionally, patients undergoing laparotomy for vaginal vault prolapse repair would spend at least 2 nights in the hospital, with slow return of feeding, ambulation, and removal of the Foley catheter. With advances in minimally invasive surgery and enhanced recovery protocols, patients now often spend 1 night in the hospital or are discharged home the same day of surgery without increased risk of complications. ^{[70, 71]}

Although postoperative care should be tailored for each patient based on her medical history and the procedure performed, enhanced recovery protocols should be employed during complex pelvic reconstruction or obliterative procedures. ^[71]  Some aspects of these protocols involve the use of multimodal anesthesia to avoid opioid use, maintaining euvolemia and basal body temperature, early feeding and catheter removal, and ambulation on the day of surgery.

Patients are usually seen 1-6 weeks after surgery for prolapse repair. It is our practice to have patients follow up in the office for a 2-week postoperative check followed by a 6-week visit. Typically, after this visit, they may be cleared to resume full functional activities, including intercourse. It is important to tailor follow-up based on a patient's medical/surgical history, the procedure performed and any complications encountered, and her ability to access the office. Telephone and telemedicine have been used in urogynecology with success; however, more robust data on postoperative outcomes are needed. ^{[72, 73]} For long-term follow-up, patients are observed every 6-12 months, as needed. This follow-up with pelvic organ prolapse quantification (POP-Q) examinations is important for research purposes in order to document long-term success rates and possible long-term complications.

For excellent patient education resources, see the Women's Health Center. Also, see the patient education article Prolapsed Uterus.

Dietary changes and the addition of fiber supplementation may be initiated based on patient bowel symptoms as an adjunct to medical or surgical management of prolapse. The details of these changes are beyond the scope of this article. After surgical treatment of prolapse, it is our practice to prescribe daily use of stool softeners for 1-2 months and laxatives as needed to avoid constipation and straining in the immediate postoperative period. After the resolution of the prolapse, there may be changes in bowel habits that can be addressed in subsequent visits. 

Hemorrhage; operative site infection; and damage to the bowel, bladder, and ureters are the most common complications during reconstructive pelvic surgery, regardless of the route or method chosen. Dyspareunia also may develop, especially when posterior vaginal incisions are employed. Additional complications shared by all pelvic surgeries, such as thromboembolism, ileus/bowel obstruction, cardiac events, or pneumonias, require meticulous preoperative and postoperative management and adequate prevention strategies. Of particular concern to the urogynecologist is the development of postoperative urinary retention and severe constipation, which are less affected by the actual vault suspension and more affected by the preoperative and postoperative management and concurrent surgical procedures.

Sacrospinous ligament fixation can result in severe hemorrhage from the inferior gluteal artery, internal pudendal vessels, or the hypogastric venous plexus. Damage to these structures is best avoided as delineated above (see Treatment/Intraoperative Details). In the event of such hemorrhage, initial packing is most beneficial, with individual and careful ligation using clips or suture. Hypogastric artery ligation is only helpful if the internal pudendal artery is hemorrhaging. The most common vessel injured is the inferior gluteal artery. Interventional radiology may also be useful for treatment of pelvic hemorrhage. ^[74]

Another complication of sacrospinous ligament fixation is buttock pain on the side of fixation. This occurs in 15% of patients and usually resolves spontaneously by 6 weeks, requiring reassurance and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents, though persistent pain may occur in 4.3% of patients. ^[75]

Other possible complications of sacrospinous ligament fixation include damage to the sciatic nerve, rectal injury, vaginal stenosis, and subsequent defects of anterior compartments. Damage to the sciatic nerve is possible and necessitates removal of the offending suture. Rectal injury may occur and is best avoided by adequate medial retraction of the rectum during the procedure. Vaginal stenosis may occur if excessive amounts of the vagina are removed during anterior and/or posterior colporrhaphy concurrent with sacrospinous ligament fixation. Because of the posterior displacement of the upper vagina, patients are prone to subsequent anterior prolapse to the hymen at a rate of up to 13%. ^[75]

Postoperative pain is also a complication in uterosacral ligament suspension. In a large study, up to 6.9% of patients had pain in the immediate postoperative period; however, this percentage decreased to 0.5% at 6 weeks. Ureteral obstruction during the operative procedure is another possible complication of uterosacral suspension. This complication is typically caused by a kinking of the ureter with traction on the uterosacral ligament and surrounding peritoneum. The incidence has been found to be as high as 11% in some studies but is typically around 3-4%. ^[75]

Colpocleisis is a relatively safe procedure and, in fact, is used in patients who otherwise may not be good surgical candidates for more extensive reconstruction. The most common adverse event was urinary tract infection (34.7%) in a recent study. In this study, major adverse events were uncommon. ^[76] Immediate complications are rare but may include bleeding, infection, urinary retention, and urgency. Postoperative stress incontinence may occur in 10% of cases when the vesical neck and/or urethra are not adequately supported. To avoid this complication, if true occult or obvious stress urinary incontinence exists preoperatively, a midurethral sling may be included in the procedure. ^{[77, 78]}

Reported complications from vaginally placed mesh include infection, bleeding, and rectal lacerations. In addition, dyspareunia and mesh exposure through the vagina and erosions into adjacent organs may also occur. ^[79]  A complete description of these complications and their management is beyond the scope of this article. 

Abdominal sacral colpopexy may result in life-threatening hemorrhage from the presacral venous plexus, middle sacral, or iliac vessels. Such bleeding may be particularly difficult to control because of extensive anastomosis, lack of venous valves, and retraction of the vessels into the sacral bone when they are completely severed. Because of the likelihood that packing with laparotomy packs may exacerbate bleeding upon their removal and further shearing of these delicate veins, careful application of pressure with a gloved finger is the initial maneuver to arrest such hemorrhaging. Bleeding may be stopped by clips, cautery, or suture; maintain keen awareness of the location of the iliac vessels, ureters, and rectum. If these measures are unsuccessful, sterile stainless steel or titanium thumbtacks may be used at the point of bleeding from a retracted presacral vessel. Bone wax has also been used successfully in the management of such bleeding. ^[80]

Other early complications of abdominal sacral colpopexy include mesh infection/erosion, bowel obstruction, and ileus. Mesh erosion is a late complication and had previously been cited to occur in as many as 10% of cases. ^[81]  However, more recent studies using minimally invasive techinques and lightweight type 1 polypropylene mesh have shown these complications to be much lower. ^[82]  Suspect the diagnosis of mesh infection in a patient following abdominal sacral colpopexy with mesh at any interval when the patient reports persistent vaginal discharge, bleeding, and/or dyspareunia.

Conservative measures for mesh exposure, including applications of estrogen vaginal cream, may be attempted first. Partial mesh excision is also possible. Some physicians advocate an abdominal approach to remove the entire mesh. Dissection in this circumstance tends to be quite difficult because of scarring and should be attempted only if a more conservative vaginal approach has failed or is associated with postoperative infection. If possible, leaving the sacral attachment is prudent because of the potential for severe hemorrhage from the scarred presacral space. Vaginally excising the eroded mesh as deep as is safely accessible, undermining and freshening the edges of the involved vagina, and closing it primarily with delayed absorbable sutures generally is preferable. Recurrence of apical prolapse usually is not observed following mesh excision, although it may be related to close temporal proximity to the original surgery. Nevertheless, do not delay management of mesh erosion. ^[79]

An emerging, significant but rare complication of sacral colpopexy is spondylodiscitis. This is thought to be due to infection of the disc, bone, periosteum, or other surrounding spinal structures near the proximal attachment of the graft following sacral colpopexy.  It has been postulated that placement of suture at the promontory corresponds to the L5-S1 disc. ^[83] For that and other anatomical reasons, the authors suggest placing these proximal sutures lower down at around S1-S2.

A large multicenter randomized trial of women undergoing surgery to treat apical vaginal prolapse and stress urinary incontinence showed that sacrospinous ligament and uterosacral ligament fixation had similar success rates at 63.1% and 64.5%, respectively, 2 years after surgery. ^[75]  It should be noted that < 6% of patients in each group had stage IV prolapse; thus, these results may not be applicable to women with massive vaginal eversion. Sacrospinous ligament fixation was reviewed by Sze and Karram. ^[84] They reported an overall failure rate of 19%, a reoperation rate for recurrent prolapse of 2.7%, and a reoperation rate for apical recurrence of 1.8%.

Previous studies showed that sacral colpopexy has an overall failure rate of 10-24% depending on the criteria used and length of follow-up. Indeed, based on extended follow-up of the CARE trial, 2-year cure rates may range from 19% if perfect anatomic support is the criterion, to 97% if the criterion is absence of subsequent treatment for pelvic organ prolapse. Similarly, failure rates increased from years 2 to 7 following surgery. ^[85]  A study by Culligan et al with a minimum of 5-year follow-up data showed improved success rates (>90%) with minimally invasive sacral colpopexy. ^[82]

Obliterative operations, such as the colpocleisis procedure, tend to have a success rate of over 90%. ^{[77, 76]}  In these studies, the majority of patients had stage IV prolapse. It is the authors' opinion that this is an excellent procedure for older patients with high stage prolapse.

Benson et al reported the first randomized comparison between abdominal and vaginal approaches to pelvic floor defects. ^[86] They reported a reoperation rate of 12% (5 of 42) for recurrent apical prolapse when performed vaginally and a reoperation rate of 2.6% (1 of 38) when performed abdominally. They reported unsatisfactory results leading to reoperation in 33% of the vaginal group versus reoperation in 16% of the abdominal group, with a mean follow-up of 2.5 years (range of 1-5.5 years).

Maher et al also performed a randomized prospective trial comparing sacrospinous ligament fixation with abdominal sacral colpopexy in post-hysterectomy vaginal vault prolapse. ^[87] Follow-up averaged 2 years postsurgery and showed a subjective success rate of 94% in the abdominal group and 91% in the vaginal group with objective cure rates of 76% in the abdominal group and 69% in the vaginal group. These differences were not statistically significant. The abdominal approach showed longer operative times, slower return to normal activity, and increased costs compared with the vaginal approach.

A Cochrane review determined the effects of different surgeries used in the management of pelvic organ prolapse from 56 randomized controlled trials (5954 women). The authors concluded that for upper vaginal prolapse (uterine or vault), abdominal sacral colpopexy was associated with a lower rate of (1) recurrent vault prolapse on examination and (2) painful intercourse than with vaginal sacrospinous colpopexy. These benefits must be balanced against a longer operating time, longer time to return to activities of daily living, and increased cost of the abdominal approach. In single studies, the sacral colpopexy had a higher success rate on examination and lower reoperation rates than high vaginal uterosacral suspension and transvaginal polypropylene mesh. ^[88]

Few well-controlled comparative studies regarding the treatment of apical prolapse are available in the literature with long-term follow-up. The concept of defect-specific repair in female pelvic reconstructive surgery is one that has been embraced by many, but not all, urogynecologists and pelvic surgeons. Whether long-term outcomes are improved using this concept remains to be determined through well-designed studies with long-term follow-up.

The implications of minimally invasive approaches in the treatment of apical prolapse, specifically laparoscopic and robotic-assisted sacrocolpopexy, present potential improvements in the correction of impaired native tissue. Systemic review and meta-analysis yielded estimated success rate for robotic sacrocolpopexy of 98.6% (95% confidence interval [CI], 97.0-100%) with a mesh exposure rate of only 4.1% (95%CI, 1.4-6.9%), and a rate of reoperation for mesh revision of 1.7%. The rates of reoperation for recurrent apical and nonapical prolapse were 0.8% and 2.5%, respectively. ^[89]  As more long-term data emerge with consistency in type 1 mesh placement, it is likely that outcomes will improve and complications will decrease. ^[82]

Practice patterns with respect to hysterectomy for prolapse are complex when the use of colpopexy and cystoscopy and rates of intraoperative complications are analyzed by surgeon volume. High-volume surgeons had the lowest complication rates, and they were most likely to perform an apical suspension procedure as well as address the anterior and/or posterior compartments and to use intraoperative cystoscopy. It was noted that the high-volume surgeons operated on patients with higher degrees of prolapse and those who had prior prolapse or anti-incontinence surgery. The finding that intermediate-volume surgeons had the highest rates of intraoperative complications suggests a nonlinear relationship between surgeon volume and complications and may be reflective of the likelihood of requesting further assistance. ^[90] Moreover, high-volume surgeons were more likely than low-volume surgeons to perform a standardized preoperative pelvic examination, offer a pessary, and preoperatively evaluate for stress urinary incontinence. ^[91]