Endometriosis Questions & Answers

1. Buchweitz O, Poel T, Diedrich K, Malik E. The diagnostic dilemma of minimal and mild endometriosis under routine conditions. J Am Assoc Gynecol Laparosc. 2003 Feb. 10(1):85-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

2. Shepard MK, Mancini MC, Campbell GD Jr, George R. Right-sided hemothorax and recurrent abdominal pain in a 34-year-old woman. Chest. 1993 Apr. 103(4):1239-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

3. Mounsey AL, Wilgus A, Slawson DC. Diagnosis and management of endometriosis. Am Fam Physician. 2006 Aug 15. 74(4):594-600. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Kennedy S, Bergqvist A, Chapron C, D'Hooghe T, Dunselman G, Greb R, et al. ESHRE guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of endometriosis. Hum Reprod. 2005 Oct. 20(10):2698-704. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

5. Kingsberg SA, Janata JW. Female sexual disorders: assessment, diagnosis, and treatment. Urol Clin North Am. 2007 Nov. 34(4):497-506, v-vi. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

6. Namnoum AB, Hickman TN, Goodman SB, Gehlbach DL, Rock JA. Incidence of symptom recurrence after hysterectomy for endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 1995 Nov. 64(5):898-902. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

7. Lobo RA. Endometriosis: etiology, pathology, diagnosis, management. Comprehensive Gynecology. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby; 5th ed. 2007:chap 19.

8. Markham SM, Carpenter SE, Rock JA. Extrapelvic endometriosis. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 1989 Mar. 16(1):193-219. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

9. Jubanyik KJ, Comite F. Extrapelvic endometriosis. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 1997 Jun. 24(2):411-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. Practice bulletin no. 114: management of endometriosis. Obstet Gynecol. 2010 Jul. 116 (1):223-36. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

11. Liu DT, Hitchcock A. Endometriosis: its association with retrograde menstruation, dysmenorrhoea and tubal pathology. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1986 Aug. 93(8):859-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

12. Kruitwagen RF, Poels LG, Willemsen WN, de Ronde IJ, Jap PH, Rolland R. Endometrial epithelial cells in peritoneal fluid during the early follicular phase. Fertil Steril. 1991 Feb. 55(2):297-303. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

13. Scott RB, Te Linde RW, Wharton LR Jr. Further studies on experimental endometriosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1953;66:1082:

14. D'Hooghe TM, Bambra CS, Raeymaekers BM, Koninckx PR. Increased prevalence and recurrence of retrograde menstruation in baboons with spontaneous endometriosis. Hum Reprod. 1996 Sep. 11(9):2022-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

15. Mathur S, Peress MR, Williamson HO, Youmans CD, Maney SA, Garvin AJ, et al. Autoimmunity to endometrium and ovary in endometriosis. Clin Exp Immunol. 1982 Nov. 50(2):259-66. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

16. Acién P, Velasco I, Gutiérrez M, Martínez-Beltrán M. Aromatase expression in endometriotic tissues and its relationship to clinical and analytical findings. Fertil Steril. 2007 Jul. 88(1):32-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

17. Matsuzaki S, Canis M, Pouly JL, Wattiez A, Okamura K, Mage G. Cyclooxygenase-2 expression in deep endometriosis and matched eutopic endometrium. Fertil Steril. 2004 Nov. 82(5):1309-15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Wölfler MM, Nagele F, Kolbus A, Seidl S, Schneider B, Huber JC, et al. A predictive model for endometriosis. Hum Reprod. 2005 Jun. 20(6):1702-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Zeitoun KM, Bulun SE. Aromatase: a key molecule in the pathophysiology of endometriosis and a therapeutic target. Fertil Steril. 1999 Dec. 72(6):961-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Shippen ER, West WJ Jr. Successful treatment of severe endometriosis in two premenopausal women with an aromatase inhibitor. Fertil Steril. 2004 May. 81(5):1395-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

21. Ailawadi RK, Jobanputra S, Kataria M, Gurates B, Bulun SE. Treatment of endometriosis and chronic pelvic pain with letrozole and norethindrone acetate: a pilot study. Fertil Steril. 2004 Feb. 81(2):290-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Suginami H. A reappraisal of the coelomic metaplasia theory by reviewing endometriosis occurring in unusual sites and instances. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1991 Jul. 165(1):214-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. Metzger DA, Lessey BA, Soper JT, McCarty KS Jr, Haney AF. Hormone-resistant endometriosis following total abdominal hysterectomy and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy: correlation with histology and steroid receptor content. Obstet Gynecol. 1991 Nov. 78(5 Pt 2):946-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

24. Schrodt GR, Alcorn MO, Ibanez J. Endometriosis of the male urinary system: a case report. J Urol. 1980 Nov. 124(5):722-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Ueki M. Histologic study of endometriosis and examination of lymphatic drainage in and from the uterus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1991 Jul. 165(1):201-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

26. Kadan Y, Fiascone S, McCourt C, et al. Predictive factors for the presence of malignant transformation of pelvic endometriosis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2014 Dec 2. 185C:23-27. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

27. Rawson JM. Prevalence of endometriosis in asymptomatic women. J Reprod Med. 1991 Jul. 36(7):513-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Strathy JH, Molgaard CA, Coulam CB, Melton LJ 3rd. Endometriosis and infertility: a laparoscopic study of endometriosis among fertile and infertile women. Fertil Steril. 1982 Dec. 38(6):667-72. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. Verkauf BS. Incidence, symptoms, and signs of endometriosis in fertile and infertile women. J Fla Med Assoc. 1987 Sep. 74(9):671-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

30. Carter JE. Combined hysteroscopic and laparoscopic findings in patients with chronic pelvic pain. J Am Assoc Gynecol Laparosc. 1994 Nov. 2(1):43-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Kontoravdis A, Hassan E, Hassiakos D, Botsis D, Kontoravdis N, Creatsas G. Laparoscopic evaluation and management of chronic pelvic pain during adolescence. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol. 1999. 26(2):76-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

32. Williams TJ, Pratt JH. Endometriosis in 1,000 consecutive celiotomies: incidence and management. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1977 Oct 1. 129(3):245-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

33. Hirsch M, Dhillon-Smith R, Cutner AS, Yap M, Creighton SM. The prevalence of endometriosis in adolescents with pelvic pain: a systematic review. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2020 Dec. 33 (6):623-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. Lynch P. Endometriosis More Common in Teenage Girls Than Previously Thought. Medscape News UK. 2020 Sep 04. Available at https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/936906.

35. Cramer DW. Epidemiology of endometriosis. Wilson EA, ed. Endometriosis. New York, NY: Alan R. Liss; 1987:5-22.

36. Hadfield RM, Mardon HJ, Barlow DH, Kennedy SH. Endometriosis in monozygotic twins. Fertil Steril. 1997 Nov. 68(5):941-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

37. Eskenazi B, Warner ML. Epidemiology of endometriosis. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 1997 Jun. 24(2):235-58. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. Harrison RF, Barry-Kinsella C. Efficacy of medroxyprogesterone treatment in infertile women with endometriosis: a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Fertil Steril. 2000 Jul. 74(1):24-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

39. Tu FF, Du H, Goldstein GP, Beaumont JL, Zhou Y, Brown WJ. The influence of prior oral contraceptive use on risk of endometriosis is conditional on parity. Fertil Steril. 2014 Mar 22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

40. Farland LV, Prescott J, Sasamoto N, et al. Endometriosis and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Obstet Gynecol. 2019 Sep. 134 (3):527-36. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

41. Lewis R. Endometriosis Linked to Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes. Medscape Medical News. 2019 Aug 08. Available at https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/916633.

42. Demco L. Mapping the source and character of pain due to endometriosis by patient-assisted laparoscopy. J Am Assoc Gynecol Laparosc. 1998 Aug. 5(3):241-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

43. Koninckx PR, Martin DC. Deep endometriosis: a consequence of infiltration or retraction or possibly adenomyosis externa?. Fertil Steril. 1992 Nov. 58(5):924-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

44. Koninckx PR, Oosterlynck D, D'Hooghe T, Meuleman C. Deeply infiltrating endometriosis is a disease whereas mild endometriosis could be considered a non-disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1994 Sep 30. 734:333-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

45. Ferrero S, Esposito F, Abbamonte LH, Anserini P, Remorgida V, Ragni N. Quality of sex life in women with endometriosis and deep dyspareunia. Fertil Steril. 2005 Mar. 83(3):573-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

46. Revised American Society for Reproductive Medicine classification of endometriosis: 1996. Fertil Steril. 1997 May. 67(5):817-21. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

47. Hornstein MD, Gleason RE, Orav J, Haas ST, Friedman AJ, Rein MS, et al. The reproducibility of the revised American Fertility Society classification of endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 1993 May. 59(5):1015-21. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

48. Koninckx PR, Meuleman C, Demeyere S, Lesaffre E, Cornillie FJ. Suggestive evidence that pelvic endometriosis is a progressive disease, whereas deeply infiltrating endometriosis is associated with pelvic pain. Fertil Steril. 1991 Apr. 55(4):759-65. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

49. Barbati A, Cosmi EV, Spaziani R, Ventura R, Montanino G. Serum and peritoneal fluid CA-125 levels in patients with endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 1994 Mar. 61(3):438-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

50. Chen FP, Soong YK, Lee N, Lo SK. The use of serum CA-125 as a marker for endometriosis in patients with dysmenorrhea for monitoring therapy and for recurrence of endometriosis. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1998 Jul. 77(6):665-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

51. Yeaman GR, Collins JE, Lang GA. Autoantibody responses to carbohydrate epitopes in endometriosis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2002 Mar. 955:174-82; discussion 199-200, 396-406. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

52. Agic A, Djalali S, Wolfler MM, Halis G, Diedrich K, Hornung D. Combination of CCR1 mRNA, MCP1, and CA125 measurements in peripheral blood as a diagnostic test for endometriosis. Reprod Sci. 2008 Nov. 15(9):906-11. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

53. Mukund J. Sonography of adnexal masses. Ultrasound Clinics. January 2007;2(1):133-53:

54. Kinkel K, Chapron C, Balleyguier C, Fritel X, Dubuisson JB, Moreau JF. Magnetic resonance imaging characteristics of deep endometriosis. Hum Reprod. 1999 Apr. 14(4):1080-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

55. Takeuchi H, Kuwatsuru R, Kitade M, Sakurai A, Kikuchi I, Shimanuki H, et al. A novel technique using magnetic resonance imaging jelly for evaluation of rectovaginal endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 2005 Feb. 83(2):442-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

56. Stewart CJ, Leung Y, Walsh MD, Walters RJ, Young JP, Buchanan DD. KRAS mutations in ovarian low-grade endometrioid adenocarcinoma: association with concurrent endometriosis. Hum Pathol. 2012 Feb 1. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

57. Sutton CJ, Pooley AS, Ewen SP, Haines P. Follow-up report on a randomized controlled trial of laser laparoscopy in the treatment of pelvic pain associated with minimal to moderate endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 1997 Dec. 68(6):1070-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

58. Waller KG, Shaw RW. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogues for the treatment of endometriosis: long-term follow-up. Fertil Steril. 1993 Mar. 59(3):511-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

59. Reeve L, Lashen H, Pacey AA. Endometriosis affects sperm-endosalpingeal interactions. Hum Reprod. 2005 Feb. 20(2):448-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

60. Badawy SZ, ElBakry MM, Samuel F, Dizer M. Cumulative pregnancy rates in infertile women with endometriosis. J Reprod Med. 1988 Sep. 33(9):757-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

61. Marcoux S, Maheux R, Bérubé S. Laparoscopic surgery in infertile women with minimal or mild endometriosis. Canadian Collaborative Group on Endometriosis. N Engl J Med. 1997 Jul 24. 337(4):217-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

62. Bukulmez O, Yarali H, Gurgan T. The presence and extent of endometriosis do not effect clinical pregnancy and implantation rates in patients undergoing intracytoplasmic sperm injection. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2001 May. 96(1):102-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

63. Hughes E, Brown J, Collins JJ, Farquhar C, Fedorkow DM, Vandekerckhove P. Ovulation suppression for endometriosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007 Jul 18. CD000155. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

64. Benschop L, Farquhar C, van der Poel N, Heineman MJ. Interventions for women with endometrioma prior to assisted reproductive technology. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010 Nov 10. CD008571. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

65. Hamdan M, Omar SZ, Dunselman G, Cheong Y. Influence of Endometriosis on Assisted Reproductive Technology Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol. 2015 Jan. 125(1):79-88. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

66. Vercammen EE, D'Hooghe TM. Endometriosis and recurrent pregnancy loss. Semin Reprod Med. 2000. 18(4):363-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

67. Allen C, Hopewell S, Prentice A, Gregory D. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for pain in women with endometriosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 Apr 15. CD004753. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

68. Nawathe A, Patwardhan S, Yates D, Harrison GR, Khan KS. Systematic review of the effects of aromatase inhibitors on pain associated with endometriosis. BJOG. 2008 Jun. 115(7):818-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

69. Guzick DS, Huang LS, Broadman BA, Nealon M, Hornstein MD. Randomized trial of leuprolide versus continuous oral contraceptives in the treatment of endometriosis-associated pelvic pain. Fertil Steril. 2011 Apr. 95(5):1568-73. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

70. Modugno F, Ness RB, Allen GO, Schildkraut JM, Davis FG, Goodman MT. Oral contraceptive use, reproductive history, and risk of epithelial ovarian cancer in women with and without endometriosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Sep. 191(3):733-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

71. Hull ME, Moghissi KS, Magyar DF, Hayes MF. Comparison of different treatment modalities of endometriosis in infertile women. Fertil Steril. 1987 Jan. 47(1):40-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

72. Kauppila A. Changing concepts of medical treatment of endometriosis. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1993 Jul. 72(5):324-36. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

73. Schlaff WD, Dugoff L, Damewood MD, Rock JA. Megestrol acetate for treatment of endometriosis. Obstet Gynecol. 1990 Apr. 75(4):646-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

74. Varma R, Sinha D, Gupta JK. Non-contraceptive uses of levonorgestrel-releasing hormone system (LNG-IUS)--a systematic enquiry and overview. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2006 Mar 1. 125(1):9-28. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

75. Anpalagan A, Condous G. Is there a role for use of levonorgestrel intrauterine system in women with chronic pelvic pain?. J Minim Invasive Gynecol. 2008 Nov-Dec. 15(6):663-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

76. Hughes E, Fedorkow D, Collins J, Vandekerckhove P. Ovulation suppression for endometriosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000. CD000155. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

77. Winkel CA, Scialli AR. Medical and surgical therapies for pain associated with endometriosis. J Womens Health Gend Based Med. 2001 Mar. 10(2):137-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

78. Paoletti AM, Serra GG, Cagnacci A, Vacca AM, Guerriero S, Solla E, et al. Spontaneous reversibility of bone loss induced by gonadotropin-releasing hormone analog treatment. Fertil Steril. 1996 Apr. 65(4):707-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

79. Taylor HS, Giudice LC, Lessey BA, Abrao MS, Kotarski J, Archer DF, et al. Treatment of Endometriosis-Associated Pain with Elagolix, an Oral GnRH Antagonist. N Engl J Med. 2017 Jul 6. 377 (1):28-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

80. Friedman AJ, Hornstein MD. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist plus estrogen-progestin "add-back" therapy for endometriosis-related pelvic pain. Fertil Steril. 1993 Aug. 60(2):236-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

81. Taskin O, Yalcinoglu AI, Kucuk S, Uryan I, Buhur A, Burak F. Effectiveness of tibolone on hypoestrogenic symptoms induced by goserelin treatment in patients with endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 1997 Jan. 67(1):40-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

82. Surrey ES, Voigt B, Fournet N, Judd HL. Prolonged gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist treatment of symptomatic endometriosis: the role of cyclic sodium etidronate and low-dose norethindrone "add-back" therapy. Fertil Steril. 1995 Apr. 63(4):747-55. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

83. Lane N, Baptista J, Snow-Harter C. Bone mineral density of the lumbar spine in endometriosis subjects compared to an age-similar control population. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1991 Feb. 72(2):510-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

84. Surrey E, Hornstein M. Prolonged GnRH agonist add back therapy for symptomatic endometriosis patients: Long-term follow-up of a 12-month clinical trial. Fertil Steril. 1999;72:S80.

85. Ling FW. Randomized controlled trial of depot leuprolide in patients with chronic pelvic pain and clinically suspected endometriosis. Pelvic Pain Study Group. Obstet Gynecol. 1999 Jan. 93(1):51-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

86. Espaulella J, Armengol J, Bella F, Lain JM, Calaf J. Pulmonary endometriosis: conservative treatment with GnRH agonists. Obstet Gynecol. 1991 Sep. 78(3 Pt 2):535-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

87. Brown J, Pan A, Hart RJ. Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone analogues for pain associated with endometriosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010 Dec 8. CD008475. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

88. Telimaa S, Puolakka J, Rönnberg L, Kauppila A. Placebo-controlled comparison of danazol and high-dose medroxyprogesterone acetate in the treatment of endometriosis. Gynecol Endocrinol. 1987 Mar. 1(1):13-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

89. Dmowski WP, Kapetanakis E, Scommegna A. Variable effects of danazol on endometriosis at 4 low-dose levels. Obstet Gynecol. 1982 Apr. 59(4):408-15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

90. Razzi S, Luisi S, Calonaci F, Altomare A, Bocchi C, Petraglia F. Efficacy of vaginal danazol treatment in women with recurrent deeply infiltrating endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 2007 Oct. 88(4):789-94. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

91. Al Kadri H, Hassan S, Al-Fozan HM, Hajeer A. Hormone therapy for endometriosis and surgical menopause. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 Jan 21. CD005997. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

92. Cook AS, Rock JA. The role of laparoscopy in the treatment of endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 1991 Apr. 55(4):663-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

93. Saidi MH, Vancaillie TG, White AJ, Sadler RK, Akright BD, Farhart SA. Complications of major operative laparoscopy. A review of 452 cases. J Reprod Med. 1996 Jul. 41(7):471-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

94. Revelli A, Modotti M, Ansaldi C, Massobrio M. Recurrent endometriosis: a review of biological and clinical aspects. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 1995 Oct. 50(10):747-54. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

95. Jones KD, Sutton C. Patient satisfaction and changes in pain scores after ablative laparoscopic surgery for stage III-IV endometriosis and endometriotic cysts. Fertil Steril. 2003 May. 79(5):1086-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

96. Beretta P, Franchi M, Ghezzi F, Busacca M, Zupi E, Bolis P. Randomized clinical trial of two laparoscopic treatments of endometriomas: cystectomy versus drainage and coagulation. Fertil Steril. 1998 Dec. 70(6):1176-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

97. Alborzi S, Momtahan M, Parsanezhad ME, Dehbashi S, Zolghadri J, Alborzi S. A prospective, randomized study comparing laparoscopic ovarian cystectomy versus fenestration and coagulation in patients with endometriomas. Fertil Steril. 2004 Dec. 82(6):1633-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

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G Willy Davila, MD Chairman, Department of Gynecology, Section of Urogynecology and Reconstructive Pelvic Surgery, Cleveland Clinic Florida

G Willy Davila, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Colorado Medical Society, Florida Medical Association

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a speaker or a member of a speakers bureau for: AMS/Astora; Astellas, Uroplasty/Cogentix<br/>Received research grant from: Pfizer; A-Cell; Coloplast; Cook Myocyte.

Dharmesh Kapoor, MD, MBBS, MRCOG Consultant Gynecologist, Royal Bournemouth Hospital

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Elizabeth Alderman, MD Director, Pediatric Residency Program, Director of Fellowship Training Program, Adolescent Medicine, Professor of Clinical Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Adolescent Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Children's Hospital at Montefiore

Elizabeth Alderman, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Pediatric Society, North American Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mark K Y Hiraoka, MD Assistant Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Hawaii, John A Burns School of Medicine; Consulting Staff, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Queen's Medical Center

Mark K Y Hiraoka, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, American Medical Association, Association of Professors of Gynecology and Obstetrics

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Gamal Mostafa Ghoniem, MD, FACS Professor and Vice Chair of Urology, Chief, Division of Female Urology, Pelvic Reconstructive Surgery, and Voiding Dysfunction, Department of Urology, University of California, Irvine, School of Medicine

Gamal Mostafa Ghoniem, MD, FACS is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Surgeons, American Urogynecologic Society, American Urological Association, International Continence Society, International Urogynaecology Association, Society of Urodynamics, Female Pelvic Medicine and Urogenital Reconstruction

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a speaker or a member of a speakers bureau for: Astellas<br/>Received research grant from: Uroplasty/Cogentix, Astellas, Allergen.

Barry D Peskin, MD, MBA Head, Section of Ambulatory Gynecology, Department of Gynecology, Cleveland Clinic, Florida

Barry D Peskin, MD, MBA is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, American Society for Reproductive Medicine, Cleveland Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, North American Menopause Society, Ohio State Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Frances E Casey, MD, MPH Associate Professor, Director of Family Planning Services, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, VCU Medical Center

Frances E Casey, MD, MPH is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Association of Reproductive Health Professionals, National Abortion Federation, Physicians for Reproductive Health, Society of Family Planning

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Michel E Rivlin, MD Former Professor, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Mississippi School of Medicine

Michel E Rivlin, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, American Medical Association, Mississippi State Medical Association, Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Thomas Michael Price, MD Associate Professor, Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Director of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Fellowship Program, Duke University Medical Center

Thomas Michael Price, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Phi Beta Kappa, Society for Reproductive Investigation, Society for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, American Society for Reproductive Medicine

Disclosure: Received research grant from: Insigtec Inc<br/>Received consulting fee from Clinical Advisors Group for consulting; Received consulting fee from MEDA Corp Consulting for consulting; Received consulting fee from Gerson Lehrman Group Advisor for consulting; Received honoraria from ABOG for board membership.

The authors and editors of Medscape Reference gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous author Tod C Aeby, MD,to the development and writing of a source article.

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