Esophageal Cancer Questions & Answers

1. Esophageal Cancer Treatment (Adult) (PDQ®)–Health Professional Version. National Cancer Institute. Available at http://www.cancer.gov/types/esophageal/hp/esophageal-treatment-pdq. March 30, 2023; Accessed: April 11, 2023.

2. Edwards MJ, Gable DR, Lentsch AB, et al. The rationale for esophagectomy as the optimal therapy for Barrett's esophagus with high-grade dysplasia. Ann Surg. 1996 May. 223(5):585-9; discussion 589-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

3. Ferguson MK, Durkin A. Long-term survival after esophagectomy for Barrett's adenocarcinoma in endoscopically surveyed and nonsurveyed patients. J Gastrointest Surg. 2002 Jan-Feb. 6(1):29-35; discussion 36. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Sung H, Ferlay J, Siegel RL, Laversanne M, Soerjomataram I, Jemal A, et al. Global cancer statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2021 Feb 4. 65 (2):87-108. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

5. Brown LM, Devesa SS, Chow WH. Incidence of adenocarcinoma of the esophagus among white Americans by sex, stage, and age. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2008 Aug 20. 100 (16):1184-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

6. Torek F. The first successful resection of the thoracic portion of the esophagus for carcinoma. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1913. 16:614-17.

7. Ohsawa T. Surgery of the esophagus. Arch Jpn Chir. 1933. 10:605-8.

8. Marshall SF. Carcinoma of the esophagus: successful resection of lower end of esophagus with reestablishment of esophageal gastric continuity. Surg Clin North Amer. 1938. 18:643.

9. Rahouma M, Harrison S, Kamel M, Nasar A, Lee B, Port J, et al. Consequences of Refusing Surgery for Esophageal Cancer: A National Cancer Database Analysis. Ann Thorac Surg. 2018 Nov. 106 (5):1476-1483. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. [Guideline] NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Esophageal and Esophagogastric Junction Cancers. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Available at http://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/pdf/esophageal.pdf. Version 2.2023 — March 10, 2023; Accessed: April 11, 2023.

11. [Guideline] Shaheen NJ, Falk GW, Iyer PG, Gerson LB, American College of Gastroenterology. ACG Clinical Guideline: Diagnosis and Management of Barrett's Esophagus. Am J Gastroenterol. 2016 Jan. 111 (1):30-50; quiz 51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

12. [Guideline] Obermannová R, Alsina M, Cervantes A, Leong T, Lordick F, Nilsson M, et al. Oesophageal cancer: ESMO Clinical Practice Guideline for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol. 2022 Oct. 33 (10):992-1004. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

13. [Guideline] Little AG, Lerut AE, Harpole DH, Hofstetter WL, Mitchell JD, Altorki NK, et al. The Society of Thoracic Surgeons practice guidelines on the role of multimodality treatment for cancer of the esophagus and gastroesophageal junction. Ann Thorac Surg. 2014 Nov. 98 (5):1880-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

14. Napier KJ, Scheerer M, Misra S. Esophageal cancer: A Review of epidemiology, pathogenesis, staging workup and treatment modalities. World J Gastrointest Oncol. 2014 May 15. 6 (5):112-20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

15. Mao WM, Zheng WH, Ling ZQ. Epidemiologic risk factors for esophageal cancer development. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2011. 12 (10):2461-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

16. Tilanus HW. Changing patterns in the treatment of carcinoma of the esophagus. Scand J Gastroenterol Suppl. 1995. 212:38-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

17. Jankowski JA, Wright NA, Meltzer SJ, et al. Molecular evolution of the metaplasia-dysplasia-adenocarcinoma sequence in the esophagus. Am J Pathol. 1999 Apr. 154(4):965-73. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Koppert LB, Wijnhoven BP, van Dekken H, et al. The molecular biology of esophageal adenocarcinoma. J Surg Oncol. 2005 Dec 1. 92(3):169-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Casson AG, Manolopoulos B, Troster M, et al. Clinical implications of p53 gene mutation in the progression of Barrett's epithelium to invasive esophageal cancer. Am J Surg. 1994 Jan. 167(1):52-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Long E, Beales IL. The role of obesity in oesophageal cancer development. Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 2014 Nov. 7 (6):247-68. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

21. Nieman KM, Romero IL, Van Houten B, Lengyel E. Adipose tissue and adipocytes support tumorigenesis and metastasis. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2013 Oct. 1831 (10):1533-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

22. Lagergren J, Bergstrom R, Lindgren A, et al. Symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux as a risk factor for esophageal adenocarcinoma. N Engl J Med. 1999 Mar 18. 340(11):825-31. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. Steevens J, Schouten LJ, Goldbohm RA, van den Brandt PA. Vegetables and fruits consumption and risk of esophageal and gastric cancer subtypes in the Netherlands Cohort Study. Int J Cancer. 2011 Dec 1. 129(11):2681-93. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

24. Steevens J, Schouten LJ, Goldbohm RA, van den Brandt PA. Alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking and risk of subtypes of oesophageal and gastric cancer: a prospective cohort study. Gut. 2010 Jan. 59(1):39-48. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Lu SH, Montesano R, Zhang MS, et al. Relevance of N-nitrosamines to esophageal cancer in China. J Cell Physiol Suppl 1986; 4:51.

26. Chu FS, Li GY. Simultaneous occurrence of fumonisin B1 and other mycotoxins in moldy corn collected from the People's Republic of China in regions with high incidences of esophageal cancer. Appl Environ Microbiol 1994; 60:847.

27. Trivedy C, Baldwin D, Warnakulasuriya S, et al. Copper content in Areca catechu (betel nut) products and oral submucous fibrosis. Lancet 1997; 349:1447.

28. Cross AJ, Freedman ND, Ren J, Ward MH, Hollenbeck AR, Schatzkin A, et al. Meat consumption and risk of esophageal and gastric cancer in a large prospective study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2011 Mar. 106 (3):432-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

29. Mark SD, Qiao YL, Dawsey SM, et al. Prospective study of serum selenium levels and incident esophageal and gastric cancers. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92:1753.

30. Li B, Taylor PR, Li JY, et al. Linxian nutrition intervention trials. Design, methods, participant characteristics, and compliance. Ann Epidemiol 1993; 3:577.

31. Abnet CC, Lai B, Qiao YL, et al. Zinc concentration in esophageal biopsy specimens measured by x-ray fluorescence and esophageal cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005; 97:301.

32. Fong LY, Sivak A, Newberne PM. Zinc deficiency and methylbenzylnitrosamine-induced esophageal cancer in rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 1978; 61:145.

33. Fong LY, Zhang L, Jiang Y, Farber JL. Dietary zinc modulation of COX-2 expression and lingual and esophageal carcinogenesis in rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005; 97:40.

34. Larsson SC, Giovannucci E, Wolk A. Folate intake, MTHFR polymorphisms, and risk of esophageal, gastric, and pancreatic cancer: a meta-analysis. Gastroenterology 2006; 131:1271.

35. Liu J, Wang J, Leng Y, Lv C. Intake of fruit and vegetables and risk of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Int J Cancer. 2013 Jul 15. 133 (2):473-85. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

36. Wysowski DK. Reports of esophageal cancer with oral bisphosphonate use. N Engl J Med 2009; 360:89.

37. Yu C, Tang H, Guo Y, Bian Z, Yang L, Chen Y, et al. Effect of Hot Tea Consumption and Its Interactions With Alcohol and Tobacco Use on the Risk for Esophageal Cancer: A Population-Based Cohort Study. Ann Intern Med. 2018 Feb 6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. Jenkins K. Hot Tea and Increased Risk for Esophageal Cancer. Medscape Medical News. Available at https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/892285. February 5, 2018; Accessed: February 7, 2018.

39. Wu C, Hu Z, He Z, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies three new susceptibility loci for esophageal squamous-cell carcinoma in Chinese populations. Nat Genet. 2011 Jun 5. 43(7):679-84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

40. Cardwell CR, Abnet CC, Cantwell MM, Murray LJ. Exposure to oral bisphosphonates and risk of esophageal cancer. JAMA. 2010 Aug 11. 304(6):657-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

41. Sitas F, Egger S, Urban MI, et al. InterSCOPE study: associations between esophageal squamous cell carcinoma and human papillomavirus serological markers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2012 Jan 18. 104(2):147-58. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

42. Ellis A, Field JK, Field EA, Friedmann PS, Fryer A, Howard P, Leigh IM, Risk J, Shaw JM, Whittaker J. Tylosis associated with carcinoma of the oesophagus and oral leukoplakia in a large Liverpool family—a review of six generations. European Journal of Cancer Part B: Oral Oncology. 1994 Dec 31;30(2):102-12.

43. Stevens HP, Kelsell DP, Bryant SP, et al. Linkage of an American pedigree with palmoplantar keratoderma and malignancy (palmoplantar ectodermal dysplasia type III) to 17q24. Literature survey and proposed updated classification of the keratodermas. Arch Dermatol 1996; 132:640.

44. Iwaya T, Maesawa C, Ogasawara S, Tamura G. Tylosis esophageal cancer locus on chromosome 17q25.1 is commonly deleted in sporadic human esophageal cancer. Gastroenterology 1998; 114:1206.

45. Lindor NM, Greene MH. The concise handbook of family cancer syndromes. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1998 Jul 15;90(14):1039-71.

46. Morson BC, Belcher JR. Adenocarcinoma of the oesophagus and ectopic gastric mucosa. Br J Cancer. 1952 Jun. 6(2):127-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

47. Naef AP, Savary M, Ozzello L. Columnar-lined lower esophagus: an acquired lesion with malignant predisposition. Report on 140 cases of Barrett's esophagus with 12 adenocarcinomas. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1975 Nov. 70(5):826-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

48. Bhat S, Coleman HG, Yousef F, et al. Risk of malignant progression in Barrett's esophagus patients: results from a large population-based study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011 Jul 6. 103(13):1049-57. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

49. Hvid-Jensen F, Pedersen L, Drewes AM, et al. Incidence of adenocarcinoma among patients with Barrett's esophagus. N Engl J Med. 2011 Oct 13. 365(15):1375-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

50. Cook MB, Kamangar F, Whiteman DC, et al. Cigarette smoking and adenocarcinomas of the esophagus and esophagogastric junction: a pooled analysis from the international BEACON consortium. J Natl Cancer Inst 2010; 102:1344.

51. Lanuti M, Liu G, Goodwin JM, Zhai R, Fuchs BC, Asomaning K, et al. A functional epidermal growth factor (EGF) polymorphism, EGF serum levels, and esophageal adenocarcinoma risk and outcome. Clin Cancer Res. 2008 May 15. 14 (10):3216-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

52. Freedman J, Ye W, Näslund E, Lagergren J. Association between cholecystectomy and adenocarcinoma of the esophagus. Gastroenterology 2001; 121:548.

53. Lauby-Secretan B, Scoccianti C, Loomis D, Grosse Y, Bianchini F, Straif K, et al. Body Fatness and Cancer--Viewpoint of the IARC Working Group. N Engl J Med. 2016 Aug 25. 375 (8):794-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

54. Thrift AP, Shaheen NJ, Gammon MD, Bernstein L, Reid BJ, Onstad L, et al. Obesity and risk of esophageal adenocarcinoma and Barrett's esophagus: a Mendelian randomization study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2014 Nov. 106 (11):[QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

55. Turati F, Tramacere I, La Vecchia C, Negri E. A meta-analysis of body mass index and esophageal and gastric cardia adenocarcinoma. Ann Oncol 2013; 24:609.

56. Lagergren J, Bergström R, Nyrén O. Association between body mass and adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and gastric cardia. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130:883.

57. Cook MB, Greenwood DC, Hardie LJ, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the risk of increasing adiposity on Barrett's esophagus. Am J Gastroenterol 2008; 103:292.

58. Drahos J, Ricker W, Pfeiffer RM, Cook MB. Metabolic syndrome and risk of esophageal adenocarcinoma in elderly patients in the United States: An analysis of SEER-Medicare data. Cancer 2017; 123:657.

59. Cancer Facts & Figures 2023. American Cancer Society. Available at https://www.cancer.org/content/dam/cancer-org/research/cancer-facts-and-statistics/annual-cancer-facts-and-figures/2023/2023-cancer-facts-and-figures.pdf. Accessed: April 12, 2023.

60. Cancer Stat Facts: Esophageal Cancer. National Cancer Institute. Available at https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/esoph.html. Accessed: April 12, 2023.

61. Kirby TJ, Rice TW. The epidemiology of esophageal carcinoma. The changing face of a disease. Chest Surg Clin N Am. 1994 May. 4(2):217-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

62. Raman R, Deorah S, McDowell BD, Abu Hejleh T, Lynch CF, Gupta A. Changing incidence of esophageal cancer among white women: analysis of SEER data (1992-2010). Contemp Oncol (Pozn). 2015. 19 (4):338-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

63. Pohl H, Sirovich B, Welch HG. Esophageal adenocarcinoma incidence: are we reaching the peak?. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2010 Jun. 19 (6):1468-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

64. Howlader N, Noone AM, Krapcho M, Miller D, Brest A, Yu M, et al. SEER Cancer Statistics Review (CSR) 1975-2016. National Cancer Institute: Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program. Available at https://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2016/. April 15, 2019; Accessed: August 5, 2019.

65. Orringer MB, Marshall B, Iannettoni MD. Transhiatal esophagectomy: clinical experience and refinements. Ann Surg. 1999 Sep. 230(3):392-400; discussion 400-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

66. Chang AC, Ji H, Birkmeyer NJ, et al. Outcomes after transhiatal and transthoracic esophagectomy for cancer. Ann Thorac Surg. 2008 Feb. 85(2):424-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

67. Chu KM, Law SY, Fok M, et al. A prospective randomized comparison of transhiatal and transthoracic resection for lower-third esophageal carcinoma. Am J Surg. 1997 Sep. 174(3):320-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

68. Suzuki A, Xiao L, Hayashi Y, et al. Prognostic significance of baseline positron emission tomography and importance of clinical complete response in patients with esophageal or gastroesophageal junction cancer treated with definitive chemoradiotherapy. Cancer. 2011 Nov 1. 117(21):4823-33. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

69. Gillies RS, Middleton MR, Han C, et al. Role of positron emission tomography–computed tomography in predicting survival after neoadjuvant chemotherapy and surgery for oesophageal adenocarcinoma. Brit J Surg. Feb 2012. 99(2):239-45.

70. Moelans CB, van Diest PJ, Milne AN, Offerhaus GJ. Her-2/neu testing and therapy in gastroesophageal adenocarcinoma. Patholog Res Int. 2010 Dec 6. 2011:674182. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

71. Prins MJ, Ruurda JP, van Diest PJ, van Hillegersberg R, Ten Kate FJ. The significance of the HER-2 status in esophageal adenocarcinoma for survival: an immunohistochemical and an in situ hybridization study. Ann Oncol. 2013 Jan 18. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

72. [Guideline] Varghese TK Jr, Hofstetter WL, Rizk NP, Low DE, Darling GE, Watson TJ, et al. The society of thoracic surgeons guidelines on the diagnosis and staging of patients with esophageal cancer. Ann Thorac Surg. 2013 Jul. 96(1):346-56. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

73. O'Donovan PB. The radiographic evaluation of the patient with esophageal carcinoma. Chest Surg Clin N Am. 1994 May. 4(2):241-56. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

74. Dittler HJ, Siewert JR. Role of endoscopic ultrasonography in esophageal carcinoma. Endoscopy. 1993 Feb. 25(2):156-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

75. Barbour AP, Rizk NP, Gerdes H, Bains MS, Rusch VW, Brennan MF, Coit DG. Endoscopic ultrasound predicts outcomes for patients with adenocarcinoma of the gastroesophageal junction. Journal of the American College of Surgeons. 2007 Oct 31;205(4):593-601.

76. Keswani RN, Early DS, Edmundowicz SA, Meyers BF, Sharma A, Govindan R, Chen J, Kohlmeier C, Azar RR. Routine positron emission tomography does not alter nodal staging in patients undergoing EUS-guided FNA for esophageal cancer. Gastrointestinal endoscopy. 2009 Jun 30;69(7):1210-7.

77. Vazquez-Sequeiros E, Norton ID, Clain JE, Wang KK, Affi A, Allen M, Deschamps C, Miller D, Salomao D, Wiersema MJ. Impact of EUS-guided fine-needle aspiration on lymph node staging in patients with esophageal carcinoma. Gastrointestinal endoscopy. 2001 Jun 30;53(7):751-7.

78. Vazquez-Sequeiros E, Wiersema MJ, Clain JE, Norton ID, Levy MJ, Romero Y, Salomao D, Dierkhising R, Zinsmeister AR. Impact of lymph node staging on therapy of esophageal carcinoma. Gastroenterology. 2003 Dec 31;125(6):1626-35.

79. Rice TW, Rusch VW, Ishwaran H, Blackstone EH. Cancer of the esophagus and esophagogastric junction: data-driven staging for the seventh edition of the American Joint Committee on Cancer/International Union Against Cancer Cancer Staging Manuals. Cancer. 2010 Aug 15. 116(16):3763-73. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

80. Hofstetter W, Correa AM, Bekele N, et al. Proposed modification of nodal status in AJCC esophageal cancer staging system. Ann Thorac Surg. 2007 Aug. 84(2):365-73; discussion 374-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

81. American Joint Committee on Cancer. Esophagus and Esophagogastric Junction. Amin MB, Edge S, Greene F, Byrd DR, Brookland RK, et al, eds. AJCC Staging Manual. 8th edition. New York, NY: Springer; 2017. 185-202.

82. Rice TW, Rusch VW, Apperson-Hansen C, Allen MS, Chen LQ, Hunter JG, et al. Worldwide esophageal cancer collaboration. Dis Esophagus. 2009. 22 (1):1-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

83. Herbella FA, Del Grande JC, Colleoni R. Japanese Society for Disease of the Esophagus. Anatomical analysis of the mediastinal lymph nodes of normal Brazilian subjects according to the classification of the Japanese Society for Diseases of the Esophagus. Surg Today. 2003. 33(4):249-53. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

84. Gaur P, Sepesi B, Hofstetter WL, Correa AM, Bhutani MS, Watson TJ, et al. Endoscopic esophageal tumor length: a prognostic factor for patients with esophageal cancer. Cancer. 2011 Jan 1. 117 (1):63-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

85. Maish MS, DeMeester SR. Endoscopic mucosal resection as a staging technique to determine the depth of invasion of esophageal adenocarcinoma. Ann Thorac Surg. 2004 Nov. 78 (5):1777-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

86. Thosani N, Singh H, Kapadia A, Ochi N, Lee JH, Ajani J, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of EUS in differentiating mucosal versus submucosal invasion of superficial esophageal cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gastrointest Endosc. 2012 Feb. 75 (2):242-53. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

87. Pennathur A, Farkas A, Krasinskas AM, Ferson PF, Gooding WE, Gibson MK, et al. Esophagectomy for T1 esophageal cancer: outcomes in 100 patients and implications for endoscopic therapy. Ann Thorac Surg. 2009 Apr. 87 (4):1048-54; discussion 1054-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

88. Bang YJ, Van Cutsem E, Feyereislova A, Chung HC, Shen L, Sawaki A, et al. Trastuzumab in combination with chemotherapy versus chemotherapy alone for treatment of HER2-positive advanced gastric or gastro-oesophageal junction cancer (ToGA): a phase 3, open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2010 Aug 28. 376 (9742):687-97. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

89. Schomas DA, Quevedo JF, Donahue JM, Nichols FC 3rd, Romero Y, Miller RC. The prognostic importance of pathologically involved celiac node metastases in node-positive patients with carcinoma of the distal esophagus or gastroesophageal junction: a surgical series from the Mayo Clinic. Dis Esophagus. 2010 Apr. 23(3):232-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

90. Gluch L, Smith RC, Bambach CP, et al. Comparison of outcomes following transhiatal or Ivor Lewis esophagectomy for esophageal carcinoma. World J Surg. 1999 Mar. 23(3):271-5; discussion 275-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

91. Goldminc M, Maddern G, Le Prise E, et al. Oesophagectomy by a transhiatal approach or thoracotomy: a prospective randomized trial. Br J Surg. 1993 Mar. 80(3):367-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

92. Hankins JR, Attar S, Coughlin TR Jr, et al. Carcinoma of the esophagus: a comparison of the results of transhiatal versus transthoracic resection. Ann Thorac Surg. 1989 May. 47(5):700-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

93. Stiles BM, Altorki NK. Traditional techniques of esophagectomy. Surg Clin North Am. 2012 Oct. 92 (5):1249-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

94. Dai Y, Chopra SS, Kneif S, Hunerbein M. Management of esophageal anastomotic leaks, perforations, and fistulae with self-expanding plastic stents. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2011 May. 141(5):1213-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

95. Martin LW, Swisher SG, Hofstetter W, et al. Intrathoracic leaks following esophagectomy are no longer associated with increased mortality. Ann Surg. 2005 Sep. 242(3):392-9; discussion 399-402. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

96. Patti MG, Corvera CU, Glasgow RE, et al. A hospital's annual rate of esophagectomy influences the operative mortality rate. J Gastrointest Surg. 1998 Mar-Apr. 2(2):186-92. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

97. Nguyen NT, Roberts P, Follette DM, et al. Thoracoscopic and laparoscopic esophagectomy for benign and malignant disease: lessons learned from 46 consecutive procedures. J Am Coll Surg. 2003 Dec. 197(6):902-13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

98. Luketich JD, Alvelo-Rivera M, Buenaventura PO, Christie NA, McCaughan JS, Litle VR, et al. Minimally invasive esophagectomy: outcomes in 222 patients. Ann Surg. 2003 Oct. 238 (4):486-94; discussion 494-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

99. Mariette C, et al, for the Fédération de Recherche en Chirurgie (FRENCH) and French Eso-Gastric Tumors (FREGAT) Working Group. Hybrid Minimally Invasive Esophagectomy for Esophageal Cancer. N Engl J Med. 2019 Jan 10. 380 (2):152-162. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

100. Uenosono Y, Arigami T, Yanagita S, et al. Sentinel node navigation surgery is acceptable for clinical T1 and N0 esophageal cancer. Ann Surg Oncol. 2011 Jul. 18(7):2003-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

101. Ngamruengphong S, Wolfsen HC, Wallace MB. Survival of Patients With Superficial Esophageal Adenocarcinoma After Endoscopic Treatment vs Surgery. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2013 Nov. 11(11):1424-1429.e2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

102. Ngamruengphong S, Wolfsen HC, Wallace MB. Survival of patients with superficial esophageal adenocarcinoma after endoscopic treatment vs surgery. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2013 Nov. 11 (11):1424-1429.e2; quiz e81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

103. Hatogai K, Yano T, Kojima T, Onozawa M, Daiko H, Nomura S, et al. Salvage photodynamic therapy for local failure after chemoradiotherapy for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Gastrointest Endosc. 2016 Jun. 83 (6):1130-1139.e3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

104. Cunningham D, Allum WH, Stenning SP, et al. Perioperative chemotherapy versus surgery alone for resectable gastroesophageal cancer. N Engl J Med. 2006 Jul 6. 355(1):11-20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

105. Allum WH, Stenning SP, Bancewicz J, Clark PI, Langley RE. Long-term results of a randomized trial of surgery with or without preoperative chemotherapy in esophageal cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2009 Oct 20. 27(30):5062-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

106. van Hagen P, Hulshof MC, van Lanschot JJ, Steyerberg EW, van Berge Henegouwen MI, Wijnhoven BP, et al. Preoperative chemoradiotherapy for esophageal or junctional cancer. N Engl J Med. 2012 May 31. 366(22):2074-84. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

107. Oppedijk V, van der Gaast A, van Lanschot JJ, van Hagen P, van Os R, van Rij CM, et al. Patterns of Recurrence After Surgery Alone Versus Preoperative Chemoradiotherapy and Surgery in the CROSS Trials. J Clin Oncol. 2014 Jan 13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

108. Mamon HJ, Tepper JE. Combination Chemoradiation Therapy: The Whole Is More Than the Sum of the Parts. J Clin Oncol. 2014 Jan 13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

109. Franko J, Voynov G, Goldman CD. Esophagectomy Timing After Neoadjuvant Therapy for Distal Esophageal Adenocarcinoma. Ann Thorac Surg. 2016 Mar. 101 (3):1123-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

110. Rohatgi PR, Swisher SG, Correa AM, Wu TT, Liao Z, Komaki R, et al. Failure patterns correlate with the proportion of residual carcinoma after preoperative chemoradiotherapy for carcinoma of the esophagus. Cancer. 2005 Oct 1. 104(7):1349-55. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

111. Fietkau R, Lewitzki V, Kuhnt T, et al. A disease-specific enteral nutrition formula improves nutritional status and functional performance in patients with head and neck and esophageal cancer undergoing chemoradiotherapy: results of a randomized, controlled, multicenter trial. Cancer. 2013 Jun 13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

112. Chustecka Z. First Approval for Immunotherapy for Esophageal Cancer. Medscape Medical News. Available at https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/916257. Jul 31, 2019; Accessed: April 12, 2023.

113. Kojima T, et al; KEYNOTE-181 Investigators. Randomized Phase III KEYNOTE-181 Study of Pembrolizumab Versus Chemotherapy in Advanced Esophageal Cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2020 Oct 7. JCO2001888. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

114. Shah MA, Kojima T, Hochhauser D, Enzinger P, Raimbourg J, Hollebecque A, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Pembrolizumab for Heavily Pretreated Patients With Advanced, Metastatic Adenocarcinoma or Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Esophagus: The Phase 2 KEYNOTE-180 Study. JAMA Oncol. 2018 Dec 20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

115. Chung HC, Bang YJ, S Fuchs C, Qin SK, et al. First-line pembrolizumab/placebo plus trastuzumab and chemotherapy in HER2-positive advanced gastric cancer: KEYNOTE-811. Future Oncol. 2021 Feb. 17 (5):491-501. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

116. Shitara K, Doi T, Dvorkin M, Mansoor W, Arkenau HT, Prokharau A, et al. Trifluridine/tipiracil versus placebo in patients with heavily pretreated metastatic gastric cancer (TAGS): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2018 Nov. 19 (11):1437-1448. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

117. Janjigian YY, Shitara K, Moehler M, et al. First-line nivolumab plus chemotherapy versus chemotherapy alone for advanced gastric, gastro-oesophageal junction, and oesophageal adenocarcinoma (CheckMate 649): a randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2021 Jul 3. 398 (10294):27-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

118. Kang YK, Chen LT, Ryu MH, Oh DY, Oh SC, Chung HC, et al. Nivolumab plus chemotherapy versus placebo plus chemotherapy in patients with HER2-negative, untreated, unresectable advanced or recurrent gastric or gastro-oesophageal junction cancer (ATTRACTION-4): a randomised, multicentre, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2022 Feb. 23 (2):234-247. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

119. Kelly RJ, Ajani JA, Kuzdzal J, Zander T, et al. Adjuvant Nivolumab in Resected Esophageal or Gastroesophageal Junction Cancer. N Engl J Med. 2021 Apr 1. 384 (13):1191-1203. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

120. FDA approves Opdivo in combination with chemotherapy and Opdivo in combination with Yervoy for first-line esophageal squamous cell carcinoma indications. U.S. Food & Drug Administration. Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/resources-information-approved-drugs/fda-approves-opdivo-combination-chemotherapy-and-opdivo-combination-yervoy-first-line-esophageal. May 31, 2022; Accessed: August 16. 2023.

121. Homs MY, Steyerberg EW, Eijkenboom WM, Tilanus HW, Stalpers LJ, Bartelsman JF, van Lanschot JJ, Wijrdeman HK, Mulder CJ, Reinders JG, Boot H. Single-dose brachytherapy versus metal stent placement for the palliation of dysphagia from oesophageal cancer: multicentre randomised trial. The Lancet. 2004 Oct 29;364(9444):1497-504.

122. Verschuur EM, Steyerberg EW, Kuipers EJ, Siersema PD. Effect of stent size on complications and recurrent dysphagia in patients with esophageal or gastric cardia cancer. Gastrointestinal endoscopy. 2007 Apr 30;65(4):592-601.

123. Lightdale CJ, Heier SK, Marcon NE, McCaughan JS, Gerdes H, Overholt BF, Sivak MV, Stiegmann GV, Nava HR. Photodynamic therapy with porfimer sodium versus thermal ablation therapy with Nd: YAG laser for palliation of esophageal cancer: a multicenter randomized trial. Gastrointestinal endoscopy. 1995 Dec 31;42(6):507-12.

124. Vakil N, Morris AI, Marcon N, Segalin A, Peracchia A, Bethge N, Zuccaro G, Bosco JJ, Jones WF. A prospective, randomized, controlled trial of covered expandable metal stents in the palliation of malignant esophageal obstruction at the gastroesophageal junction. The American journal of gastroenterology. 2001 Jun 1;96(6):1791-6.

125. Shin JH, Song HY, Kim JH, Kim SB, Lee GH, Park SI, Han YM, Kang W. Comparison of temporary and permanent stent placement with concurrent radiation therapy in patients with esophageal carcinoma. Journal of vascular and interventional radiology. 2005 Jan 31;16(1):67-74.

126. Ross WA, Alkassab F, Lynch PM, Ayers GD, Ajani J, Lee JH, Bismar M. Evolving role of self-expanding metal stents in the treatment of malignant dysphagia and fistulas. Gastrointestinal endoscopy. 2007 Jan 31;65(1):70-6.

127. [Guideline] Wong RK, Malthaner RA, Zuraw L, Rumble RB,. Combined modality radiotherapy and chemotherapy in nonsurgical management of localized carcinoma of the esophagus: a practice guideline. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2003 Mar 15. 55(4):930-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

128. Herskovic A, Martz K, al-Sarraf M, et al. Combined chemotherapy and radiotherapy compared with radiotherapy alone in patients with cancer of the esophagus. N Engl J Med. 1992 Jun 11. 326(24):1593-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

129. Folkert MR, Cohen GN, Wu AJ, et al. Endoluminal high-dose-rate brachytherapy for early stage and recurrent esophageal cancer in medically inoperable patients. Brachytherapy. 2013 Feb 20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

130. Ford HE, et al; COUGAR-02 Investigators. Docetaxel versus active symptom control for refractory oesophagogastric adenocarcinoma (COUGAR-02): an open-label, phase 3 randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. 2014 Jan. 15 (1):78-86. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

131. Homs MY, v d Gaast A, Siersema PD, et al. Chemotherapy for metastatic carcinoma of the esophagus and gastro-esophageal junction. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006 Oct 18. CD004063. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

132. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. National Cancer Institute: PDQ® Esophageal Cancer Prevention. Available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/prevention/esophageal/HealthProfessional. September 9, 2022; Accessed: April 143, 2023.

133. Romero YV, Cameron AJ, Locke G3, Schaid DJ, Slezak JM, Branch CD, Melton LJ. Familial aggregation of gastroesophageal reflux in patients with Barrett's esophagus and esophageal adenocarcinoma. Gastroenterology. 1997 Nov 1;113(5):1449-56.

134. Verbeek RE, Spittuler LF, Peute A, van Oijen MG, Fiebo J, Vermeijden JR, Oberndorff A, van Baal JW, Siersema PD. Familial clustering of Barrett's esophagus and esophageal adenocarcinoma in a European cohort. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2014 Oct 31;12(10):1656-63.

135. Ellis NA, German J. Molecular genetics of Bloom's syndrome. Human molecular genetics. 1996 Sep 1;5(Supplement 1):1457-63.

136. de Winter JP, Joenje H. The genetic and molecular basis of Fanconi anemia. Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis. 2009 Jul 31;668(1):11-9.

137. Rosenberg PS, Alter BP, Ebell W. Cancer risks in Fanconi anemia: findings from the German Fanconi Anemia Registry. Haematologica. 2008 Apr 1;93(4):511-7.

138. van Zeeburg HJ, Snijders PJ, Wu T, Gluckman E, Soulier J, Surralles J, Castella M, van der Wal JE, Wennerberg J, Califano J, Velleuer E. Clinical and molecular characteristics of squamous cell carcinomas from Fanconi anemia patients. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2008 Nov 19;100(22):1649-53.

139. Oostra AB, Nieuwint AW, Joenje H, De Winter JP. Diagnosis of fanconi anemia: chromosomal breakage analysis. Anemia. 2012 May 24;2012.

140. [Guideline] Qumseya B, et al; ASGE Standards of Practice Committee Chair. ASGE guideline on screening and surveillance of Barrett's esophagus. Gastrointest Endosc. 2019 Sep. 90 (3):335-359.e2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

141. [Guideline] American Gastroenterological Association, Spechler SJ, Sharma P, Souza RF, Inadomi JM, Shaheen NJ. American Gastroenterological Association medical position statement on the management of Barrett's esophagus. Gastroenterology. 2011 Mar. 140 (3):1084-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

142. [Guideline] Shaheen NJ, Weinberg DS, Denberg TD, Chou R, Qaseem A, Shekelle P, et al. Upper endoscopy for gastroesophageal reflux disease: best practice advice from the clinical guidelines committee of the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2012 Dec 4. 157 (11):808-16. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

143. [Guideline] Bartley AN, Washington MK, Ismaila N, Ajani JA. HER2 Testing and Clinical Decision Making in Gastroesophageal Adenocarcinoma: Guideline Summary From the College of American Pathologists, American Society for Clinical Pathology, and American Society of Clinical Oncology. J Oncol Pract. 2016 Nov 29. JOP2016018929. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

144. Rao S, Welsh L, Cunningham D, et al. Correlation of overall survival with gene expression profiles in a prospective study of resectable esophageal cancer. Clin Colorectal Cancer. 2011 Mar 1. 10(1):48-56. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

145. Alexander BM, Wang XZ, Niemierko A, Weaver DT, Mak RH, Roof KS, et al. DNA repair biomarkers predict response to neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy in esophageal cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2012 May 1. 83(1):164-71. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

146. Wilke H, Muro K, Van Cutsem E, Oh SC, Bodoky G, Shimada Y, et al. Ramucirumab plus paclitaxel versus placebo plus paclitaxel in patients with previously treated advanced gastric or gastro-oesophageal junction adenocarcinoma (RAINBOW): a double-blind, randomised phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2014 Oct. 15 (11):1224-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

Muhammad Masab, MD Fellow in Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, West Virginia University School of Medicine

Muhammad Masab, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Society of Hospital Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Claudia M da Costa Dourado, MD Clinical Assistant Professor of Medicine, Sidney Kimmel Medical College of Thomas Jefferson University; Program Director, Hematology and Medical Oncology Fellowship Program, Attending Physician, Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, Einstein Medical Center Philadelphia

Claudia M da Costa Dourado, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Society of Clinical Oncology, American Society of Hematology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

N Joseph Espat, MD, MS, FACS Harold J Wanebo Professor of Surgery, Assistant Dean of Clinical Affairs, Boston University School of Medicine; Chairman, Department of Surgery, Director, Adele R Decof Cancer Center, Roger Williams Medical Center

N Joseph Espat, MD, MS, FACS is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Association for Cancer Research, American College of Surgeons, American Medical Association, American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition, American Society of Clinical Oncology, Americas Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Association, Association for Academic Surgery, Central Surgical Association, Chicago Medical Society, International Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Association, Pancreas Club, Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Honor Society, Society for Leukocyte Biology, Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract, Society of American Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons, Society of Surgical Oncology, Society of University Surgeons, Southeastern Surgical Congress, Southern Medical Association, Surgical Infection Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Marco G Patti, MD Surgeon, UNC Hospitals Multispecialty Surgery Clinic

Marco G Patti, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American College of Surgeons, American Gastroenterological Association, American Medical Association, American Surgical Association, Association for Academic Surgery, Pan-Pacific Surgical Association, Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract, Society of American Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons, Southwestern Surgical Congress, Western Surgical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Fernando AM Herbella, MD, PhD, TCBC Affiliate Professor, Attending Surgeon in Gastrointestinal Surgery, Esophagus and Stomach Division, Department of Surgery, Federal University of Sao Paulo Medical School; Private Practice; Medical Examiner, Sao Paulo's Medical Examiner's Office Headquarters, Brazil

Fernando AM Herbella, MD, PhD, TCBC is a member of the following medical societies: Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Keith M Baldwin, DO IMPH, Assistant Professor of Surgery, Boston University School of Medicine; Endocrine and Surgical Oncologist, Department of General Surgery, Roger Williams Cancer Center

Keith M Baldwin, DO is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Surgeons, Society of Surgical Oncology, American Association of Endocrine Surgeons, Americas Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Association, Society of International Humanitarian Surgeons/Surgeons OverSeas (SOS)

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Philip Schulman, MD Chief, Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center

Philip Schulman, MD, is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for Cancer Research, American College of Physicians, American Society of Hematology, and Medical Society of the State of New York

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

• Print this section
• Print the entire contents of
• Print the entire contents of article