Diagnostic Considerations

The relationship between alcohol and bipolar disorder is an important dual diagnosis. In fact, a substance abuse disorder is seen in nearly 60% of individuals with bipolar disorder.^[32]Any individual who presents with significant mood fluctuations must be screened for an alcohol use disorder.

Panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, dysthymic disorder, major depression, bipolar mania, or primary (idiopathic) insomnia: Alcohol abuse or dependence might reflect self-treatment for these conditions.

Other drug abuse (both prescription drugs and street drugs): Consider the possibility of other drug abuse, both prescription drugs and street drugs.

Comorbid disorders: Also consider comorbid psychiatric conditions such as anxiety and depression. Depression, anxiety, and antisocial personality all are more common in persons with alcoholism than in the general population (20.5% vs 7.2%, 23.5% vs 11.1%, and 18.3% vs 3.6%, respectively).

Of particular importance is the common concurrence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcohol abuse. The activating symptoms of alcohol withdrawal aggravate the PTSD, which inevitably increases the risk of relapse.^[33]A number of studies examined alcohol use in the aftermath of the attacks on the World Trade Center. A survey conducted 9 months after the terrorist attack found a 17.5% increase in alcohol use when compared with consumption patterns in the month preceding the attack. The same study noted that PTSD declined during those 9 months, but alcohol use remained elevated.^[34]Individuals glued to the television experienced higher rates of PTSD. Nationwide estimates of PTSD in the 2 months following 9/11 varied according to the television viewing time, ranging between 2.7-4.3%.^[35]

Another study examined combat veterans of the first Gulf War. Six years after that brief war, a significant correlation still existed between alcohol use disorders and PTSD.^[36]The co-occurring disorders of PTSD and alcohol abuse are expressed differently between the genders. Men are much more likely to experience irritability as they drink excessively.^[37]Women with PTSD also abuse alcohol, but are more likely to suffer from vague physical complaints and depression.^[38]

Differential Diagnoses

Workup

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Media Gallery

Deaths while intoxicated. Data from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA).

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Table 1. AUDIT Questions and Scoring System

Questions	0 Points	1 Point	2 Points	3 Points	4 Points
1. How often do you have a drink containing alcohol?	Never	Monthly or less	2-4 times a month	2-3 times a week	4 or more times a week
2. How many drinks containing alcohol do you have on a typical day when you are drinking?	1 or 2	3 or 4	5 or 6	7-9	10 or more
3. How often do you have 6 or more drinks on 1 occasion?	Never	Less than monthly	Monthly	Weekly	Daily or almost daily
4. How often during the past year have you found that you were not able to stop drinking once you had started?	Never	Less than monthly	Monthly	Weekly	Daily or almost daily
5. How often during the past year have you failed to do what was normally expected of you because of drinking?	Never	Less than monthly	Monthly	Weekly	Daily or almost daily
6. How often during the past year have you needed a first drink in the morning to get yourself going after a heavy drinking session?	Never	Less than monthly	Monthly	Weekly	Daily or almost daily
7. How often during the past year have you had a feeling of guilt or remorse after drinking?	Never	Less than monthly	Monthly	Weekly	Daily or almost daily
8. How often during the past year have you been unable to remember what happened the night before because you had been drinking?	Never	Less than monthly	Monthly	Weekly	Daily or almost daily
9. Have you or has someone else been injured as a result of your drinking?	No		Yes, but not in the past year		Yes, during the past year
10. Has a relative, friend, or a doctor or other health care worker been concerned about your drinking or suggested you cut down?	No		Yes, but not in the past year		Yes, during the past year

Table 2. Sensitivity and Specificity of Alcohol Biomarkers*

Biomarker	Sensitivity (%)	Specificity (%)
AST	15-69	47-68
ALT	18-58	50-57
GGT	34-85	11-95
MCV	34-89	26-95
CDT	39-94	82-100
CDT + GGT	90 †	98
Alcohol	0-100	0-100
EtG	76-91	77-92
*Values vary considerably according to gender, age, drinking pattern, prevalence of alcohol abuse/dependence, and prevalence of comorbidity, among other factors.^{[40, 6, 41, 43, 44]} † The sensitivity comes from one study in Finland, which uses a special formula. This study needs to be replicated.^[45]