Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Differential Diagnoses

1. Moffitt TE, Houts R, Asherson P, Belsky DW, Corcoran DL, Hammerle M, et al. Is Adult ADHD a Childhood-Onset Neurodevelopmental Disorder? Evidence From a Four-Decade Longitudinal Cohort Study. Am J Psychiatry. 2015 May 22. appiajp201514101266. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

2. Rosack J. PET Scans Reveal Action of Methylphenidate in Brain. Psychiatric News. Sept 21, 2001. 36, 18:

3. Kooistra L, van der Meere JJ, Edwards JD, Kaplan BJ, Crawford S, Goodyear BG. Preliminary fMRI findings on the effects of event rate in adults with ADHD. J Neural Transm. 2010 Feb 16. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Cherkasova MV, Hechtman L. Neuroimaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: beyond the frontostriatal circuitry. Can J Psychiatry. 2009 Oct. 54(10):651-64. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

5. Yang P, Wu MT, Dung SS, Ko CW. Short-TE proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy investigation in adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2010 Feb 10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

6. Sobel LJ, Bansal R, Maia TV, Sanchez J, Mazzone L, Durkin K, et al. Basal Ganglia surface morphology and the effects of stimulant medications in youth with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2010 Aug. 167(8):977-86. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

7. Shaw P, Gilliam M, Liverpool M, et al. Cortical development in typically developing children with symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity: support for a dimensional view of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2011 Feb. 168(2):143-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

8. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Newcorn J, Telang F, Solanto MV, Fowler JS, et al. Depressed dopamine activity in caudate and preliminary evidence of limbic involvement in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007 Aug. 64(8):932-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

9. Morein-Zamir S, Hommersen P, Johnston C, Kingstone A. Novel Measures of Response Performance and Inhibition in Children with ADHD. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2008 May 9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. Jacobson LA, Crocetti D, Dirlikov B, Slifer K, Denckla MB, Mostofsky SH, et al. Anomalous Brain Development Is Evident in Preschoolers With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2018 Mar 26. 1-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

11. Narad. Secondary Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents 5 to 10 Years After Traumatic Brain Injury. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

12. Cotinine Factsheet. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/Cotinine_FactSheet.html. April 7, 2017; Accessed: April 22, 2019.

13. Sourander A, Sucksdorff M, Chudal R, Surcel HM, Hinkka-Yli-Salomäki S, Gyllenberg D, et al. Prenatal Cotinine Levels and ADHD Among Offspring. Pediatrics. 2019 Mar. 143 (3):[QxMD MEDLINE Link].

14. Madjar N, Shlosberg D, Leventer-Roberts M, Akriv A, Ghilai A, Hoshen M, et al. Childhood methylphenidate adherence as a predictor of antidepressants use during adolescence. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2019 Mar 4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

15. Danielson ML, Bitsko RH, Ghandour RM, Holbrook JR, Kogan MD, Blumberg SJ. Prevalence of Parent-Reported ADHD Diagnosis and Associated Treatment Among U.S. Children and Adolescents, 2016. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2018 Mar-Apr. 47 (2):199-212. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

16. Visser SN, Danielson ML, Bitsko RH, Holbrook JR, Kogan MD, Ghandour RM, et al. Trends in the parent-report of health care provider-diagnosed and medicated attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: United States, 2003-2011. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2014 Jan. 53 (1):34-46.e2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

17. Akinbami LJ, Liu X, Pastor PN, Reuben CA. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among children aged 5-17 years in the United States, 1998-2009. NCHS Data Brief. 2011 Aug. 1-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Goodman DW, Thase ME. Recognizing ADHD in adults with comorbid mood disorders: implications for identification and management. Postgrad Med. 2009 Sep. 121(5):20-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Cuffe SP, Visser SN, Holbrook JR, Danielson ML, Geryk LL, Wolraich ML, et al. ADHD and Psychiatric Comorbidity: Functional Outcomes in a School-Based Sample of Children. J Atten Disord. 2015 Nov 25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Semiz UB, Basoglu C, Oner O, Munir KM, Ates A, Algul A, et al. Effects of diagnostic comorbidity and dimensional symptoms of attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder in men with antisocial personality disorder. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2008 May. 42(5):405-13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

21. Upadhyaya HP, Carpenter MJ. Is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptom severity associated with tobacco use?. Am J Addict. 2008 May-Jun. 17(3):195-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Reiersen AM, Todd RD. Co-occurrence of ADHD and autism spectrum disorders: phenomenology and treatment. Expert Rev Neurother. 2008 Apr. 8(4):657-69. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. Halmoy A, Halleland H, Dramsdahl M, Bergsholm P, Fasmer OB, Haavik J. Bipolar symptoms in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a cross-sectional study of 510 clinically diagnosed patients and 417 population-based controls. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010 Jan. 71(1):48-57. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

24. Arcos-Burgos M, Jain M, Acosta MT, Shively S, Stanescu H, Wallis D, et al. A common variant of the latrophilin 3 gene, LPHN3, confers susceptibility to ADHD and predicts effectiveness of stimulant medication. Mol Psychiatry. 2010 Feb 16. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Kopecková M, Paclt I, Petrásek J, Pacltová D, Malíková M, Zagatová V. Some ADHD polymorphisms (in genes DAT1, DRD2, DRD3, DBH, 5-HTT) in case-control study of 100 subjects 6-10 age. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2008 Apr. 29(2):246-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

26. Faraone SV, Mick E. Molecular Genetics of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2010 Mar. 33(1):159-180. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

27. Bellgrove MA, O'Connell RG, Vance A. Genetics of cognitive deficits in ADHD: clues for novel treatment methods. Expert Rev Neurother. 2008 Apr. 8(4):553-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Padrón A, Galán I, García-Esquinas E, Fernández E, Ballbè M, Rodríguez-Artalejo F. Exposure to secondhand smoke in the home and mental health in children: a population-based study. Tob Control. 2015 Mar 25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. Martel MM, Nikolas M, Jernigan K, Friderici K, Nigg JT. Personality Mediation of Genetic Effects on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2010 Feb 10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

30. Sibley MH, Rohde LA, Swanson JM, Hechtman LT, Molina BSG, Mitchell JT, et al. Late-Onset ADHD Reconsidered With Comprehensive Repeated Assessments Between Ages 10 and 25. Am J Psychiatry. 2017 Oct 20. appiajp201717030298. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Hoogman M, Bralten J, Hibar DP, Mennes M, Zwiers MP, et al. Subcortical brain volume differences in participants with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adults: a cross-sectional mega-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry. 2017 Feb 16. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

32. Ustun B, Adler LA, Rudin C, Faraone SV, Spencer TJ, Berglund P, et al. The World Health Organization Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Self-Report Screening Scale for DSM-5. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017 Apr 5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

33. Tcheremissine OV, Salazar JO. Pharmacotherapy of adult attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: review of evidence-based practices and future directions. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2008 May. 9(8):1299-310. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. Moran LV, Ongur D, Hsu J, Castro VM, Perlis RH, Schneeweiss S. Psychosis with Methylphenidate or Amphetamine in Patients with ADHD. N Engl J Med. 2019 Mar 21. 380 (12):1128-1138. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

35. Volkow ND, Swanson JM. Does childhood treatment of ADHD with stimulant medication affect substance abuse in adulthood?. Am J Psychiatry. 2008 May. 165(5):553-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

36. Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Truong NL, Moulton JL 3rd, Roizen ER, Howell KH, et al. Age of methylphenidate treatment initiation in children with ADHD and later substance abuse: prospective follow-up into adulthood. Am J Psychiatry. 2008 May. 165(5):604-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

37. Semrud-Clikeman M, Pliszka S, Liotti M. Executive functioning in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Combined type with and without a stimulant medication history. Neuropsychology. 2008 May. 22(3):329-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. Cheng W, Frei O, van der Meer D, Wang Y, O'Connell KS, Chu Y, et al. Genetic Association Between Schizophrenia and Cortical Brain Surface Area and Thickness. JAMA Psychiatry. 2021 Jun 23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

39. Blader JC, Schooler NR, Jensen PS, Pliszka SR, Kafantaris V. Adjunctive divalproex versus placebo for children with ADHD and aggression refractory to stimulant monotherapy. Am J Psychiatry. 2009 Dec. 166(12):1392-401. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

40. Solanto MV, Marks DJ, Wasserstein J, Mitchell K, Abikoff H, Alvir JM, et al. Efficacy of Meta-Cognitive Therapy for Adult ADHD. Am J Psychiatry. 2010 Aug. 167(8):958-968. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

41. Pelham WE Jr, Fabiano GA. Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2008 Jan. 37(1):184-214. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

42. Young S, Myanthi Amarasinghe J. Practitioner Review: Non-pharmacological treatments for ADHD: A lifespan approach. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009 Nov 4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

43. Sonuga-Barke EJ, Brandeis D, Cortese S, et al. Nonpharmacological Interventions for ADHD: Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses of Randomized Controlled Trials of Dietary and Psychological Treatments. Am J Psychiatry. 2013 Mar 1. 170(3):275-89. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

44. McGough JJ, Sturm A, Cowen J, Tung K, Salgari GC, Leuchter AF, et al. Double-Blind, Sham-Controlled, Pilot Study of Trigeminal Nerve Stimulation for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2019 Apr. 58 (4):403-411.e3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

45. Silva AP, Prado SO, Scardovelli TA, Boschi SR, Campos LC, Frère AF. Measurement of the effect of physical exercise on the concentration of individuals with ADHD. PLoS One. 2015 Mar 24. 10 (3):e0122119. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

46. [Guideline] Wolraich M, Hagan J, Allan C, et al. Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics. October 2019. 144(4):

47. Adler LD, Nierenberg AA. Review of medication adherence in children and adults with ADHD. Postgrad Med. 2010 Jan. 122(1):184-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

48. Hosenbocus S, Chahal R. A review of long-acting medications for ADHD in Canada. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009 Nov. 18(4):331-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

49. Buitelaar J, Medori R. Treating attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder beyond symptom control alone in children and adolescents: a review of the potential benefits of long-acting stimulants. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009 Oct 13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

50. Cassels, C. FDA Okays Once-Daily Dyanavel XR for ADHD in Children. Medscape Medical News. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/852988. October 21, 2015; Accessed: October 27, 2015.

51. Pfizer. Pfizer Receives U.S. FDA Approval of New QuilliChew ER™ (methylphenidate hydrochloride) extended-release chewable tablets CII. December 7, 2015. Available at http://www.pfizer.com/news/press-release/press-release-detail/pfizer_receives_u_s_fda_approval_of_new_quillichew_er_methylphenidate_hydrochloride_extended_release_chewable_tablets_cii?linkId=19384409.

52. Cotempla XR-ODT (methylphenidate extended release orally disintegrating tablets) [package insert]. Grand Prairie, TX: Neos Therapeutics, Inc. June 2017. Available at [Full Text].

53. Pliszka SR, Wilens TE, Bostrom S, Arnold VK, Marraffino A, Cutler AJ, et al. Efficacy and Safety of HLD200, Delayed-Release and Extended-Release Methylphenidate, in Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2017 Aug. 27 (6):474-482. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

54. Chang Z, Lichtenstein P, D'Onofrio BM, Sjölander A, Larsson H. Serious Transport Accidents in Adults With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and the Effect of Medication: A Population-Based Study. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014 Jan 29. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

55. Habel LA, Cooper WO, Sox CM, et al. ADHD medications and risk of serious cardiovascular events in young and middle-aged adults. JAMA. 2011 Dec 28. 306(24):2673-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

56. Mydayis (mixed salts of a single entity amphetamine product) extended release capsule [package insert]. Lexington, MA: Shire LLC. June 2017. Available at [Full Text].

57. FDA. FDA warns of rare risk of long-lasting erections in males taking methylphenidate ADHD medications and has approved label changes. US Food and Drug Administration. Available at http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm375796.htm. Accessed: January 16, 2014.

58. Webb JR, Valasek MA, North CS. Prevalence of stimulant use in a sample of US medical students. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2013 Feb. 25(1):27-32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

59. Lichtenstein P, Halldner L, Zetterqvist J, et al. Medication for attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder and criminality. N Engl J Med. 2012 Nov 22. 367(21):2006-14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

60. Biederman J1, Fried R1, DiSalvo M1, Storch B1, Pulli A1, Woodworth KY1, et al. Evidence of Low Adherence to Stimulant Medication Among Children and Youths With ADHD: An Electronic Health Records Study. Psychiatr Serv. 2019. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

61. Klein RG, Mannuzza S, Olazagasti MA, et al. Clinical and Functional Outcome of Childhood Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 33 Years Later. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012 Oct 15. 1-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

62. Chronis-Tuscano A, Molina BS, Pelham WE, Applegate B, Dahlke A, Overmyer M, et al. Very early predictors of adolescent depression and suicide attempts in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010 Oct. 67(10):1044-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

63. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR). 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000. 78-85.

64. Faraone SV, Perlis RH, Doyle AE, et al. Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2005 Jun 1. 57(11):1313-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

65. Faraone SV, Sergeant J, Gillberg C, Biederman J. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: is it an American condition?. World Psychiatry. 2003 Jun. 2(2):104-113. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

66. Kaplan HI, Sadock BJ, Grebb JA. Kaplan and Sadock's Synposis of Psychiatry. 7th ed. Baltimore, Md: Williams & Wilkins; 1994. 1063-8.

67. Rugino TA, Samsock TC. Modafinil in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Pediatr Neurol. 2003 Aug. 29(2):136-42. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

68. Shillington AM, Reed MB, Lange JE, Clapp JD, Henry S. College undergraduate Ritalin abusers in Southwestern California: Protective and Risk Factors. J Drug Iss. 2006. 36:4:999-1014.

69. Spencer T, Biederman J, Wilens T. Nonstimulant treatment of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2004 Jun. 27(2):373-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

70. White BP, Becker-Blease KA, Grace-Bishop K. Stimulant medication use, misuse, and abuse in an undergraduate and graduate student sample. J Am Coll Health. 2006 Mar-Apr. 54(5):261-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

71. Christensen J1, Pedersen LH2, Sun Y1, 2, 3, Dreier JW3, et al. Association of Prenatal Exposure to Valproate and Other Antiepileptic Drugs With Risk for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Offspring. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

72. Sourander A1, 2, 3, Sucksdorff M4, 5, Chudal R4, et al. Prenatal Cotinine Levels and ADHD Among Offspring. Pediatrics. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

73. Moran LV1, Ongur D1, Hsu J1, Castro VM1, Perlis RH1, Schneeweiss S1. Psychosis with Methylphenidate or Amphetamine in Patients with ADHD. N Engl J Med. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

74. Madjar N1, Shlosberg D2, 3, Leventer-Roberts M2, 4, Akriv A2, et al. Childhood methylphenidate adherence as a predictor of antidepressants use during adolescence. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

Stephen Soreff, MD President of Education Initiatives, Nottingham, NH; Faculty, Boston University, Boston, MA and Daniel Webster College, Nashua, NH

Stephen Soreff, MD is a member of the following medical societies: ACMHA: The College for Behavioral Health Leadership

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Glen L Xiong, MD Associate Clinical Professor, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Department of Internal Medicine, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine; Medical Director, Sacramento County Mental Health Treatment Center

Glen L Xiong, MD is a member of the following medical societies: AMDA - The Society for Post-Acute and Long-Term Care Medicine, American College of Physicians, American Psychiatric Association, Central California Psychiatric Society

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: SafelyYou, Blue Cross Blue Shield<br/>book co-editor for: Wolter Kluwer, American Psychiatric Publishing Inc.

• Print this section
• Print the entire contents of
• Print the entire contents of article