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Medication

Medication Summary

The goals of pharmacotherapy are to reduce morbidity and to prevent complications.

Few specific antiviral agents exist. Acyclovir (for varicella and herpes simplex pneumonia) is efficacious. Ganciclovir and immunoglobulin are used in immunocompromised patients with CMV pneumonia.

For further information on albuterol and inhaled corticosteroid use, see Asthma.

Class Summary

Acute lower respiratory tract infection from viral etiologies can be treated with antiviral agents. These agents inhibit DNA synthesis and viral replication by competing with deoxyguanosine triphosphate for viral DNA polymerase.

Agents used include amantadine, rimantadine, zanamivir, oseltamivir, ribavirin, acyclovir, ganciclovir, and foscarnet are used. The influenza drugs may be used as either prophylactic or therapeutic agents. Hyperimmune globulin is used primarily for passive immunization in some viral illnesses.

Zanamivir (Relenza)

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Zanamivir inhibits neuraminidase, which is a glycoprotein on the surface of the influenza virus that destroys the infected cell's receptor for viral hemagglutinin. By inhibiting viral neuraminidase, the release of viruses from infected cells and viral spread are decreased. Zanamivir is effective against influenza types A and B. The drug is inhaled through the Diskhaler oral inhalation device. Circular foil discs containing 5-mg blisters of the drug are inserted into the supplied inhalation device.

Oseltamivir (Tamiflu)

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Oseltamivir inhibits neuraminidase, which is a glycoprotein on the surface of influenza virus that destroys an infected cell's receptor for viral hemagglutinin. By inhibiting viral neuraminidase, it decreases the release of viruses from infected cells and thus viral spread. Oseltamivir is effective for treatment of influenza A or B infection, although resistant strains of seasonal influenza and H1N1 have been reported. Start within 40 hours of symptom onset.

Peramivir (Rapivab)

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Peramivir elicits antiviral activity by inhibiting influenza virus neuraminidase, an enzyme that releases viral particles from the plasma membrane of infected cells. It is indicated for the treatment of acute uncomplicated influenza in adults and children aged 6 months and older who have been symptomatic for no more than 2 days.

Ribavirin (Virazole)

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Ribavirin inhibits viral replication by inhibiting DNA and RNA synthesis. It has shown in vitro antiviral properties against RSV, parainfluenza, hantavirus, measles, and many other.

Acyclovir (Zovirax)

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Acyclovir inhibits activity of both HSV-1 and HSV-2. It has affinity for viral thymidine kinase and, once phosphorylated, causes DNA chain termination when acted on by DNA polymerase. Patients experience less pain and faster resolution of HSV or VZV lesions when used within 24-48 hours of rash onset. Early initiation of therapy is imperative.

Ganciclovir (Cytovene, Vitrasert)

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Ganciclovir is a synthetic guanine derivative that is active against CMV, HSV, HHV-6, and HHV-8. It is an acyclic nucleoside analog of 2'-deoxyguanosine that inhibits replication of herpesviruses both in vitro and in vivo. levels of ganciclovir-triphosphate are as much as 100-fold greater in CMV-infected cells than in uninfected cells, possibly because of preferential phosphorylation of ganciclovir in virus-infected cells. An oral prodrug, valganciclovir, is now available.

Foscarnet (Foscavir)

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Foscarnet is an organic analog of inorganic pyrophosphate that inhibits replication of known herpesviruses, including CMV, HSV-1, and HSV-2. It inhibits viral replication at pyrophosphate-binding sites on virus-specific DNA polymerases. Poor clinical response or persistent viral excretion during therapy may result from viral resistance. Patients who can tolerate foscarnet well may benefit from initiation of maintenance treatment at 120 mg/kg/d early in treatment. Individualize dosing based on renal function status.

Cidofovir (Vistide)

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Cidofovir has demonstrated good in vitro activity against adenoviruses, including serotype 14. Cidofovir has shown some efficacy in treating adenovirus infection in immunocompromised patients, especially HSCT recipients.

Class Summary

Humanized monoclonal antibody directed against the F (fusion) protein of RSV are indicated for prophylaxis of newborns and young infants during or entering RSV season.

Palivizumab (Synagis)

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Given as a monthly IM injection through the RSV season, it has been demonstrated to decrease the chances of RSV hospitalization in premature babies who are at increased risk for severe RSV-related illness.

Nirsevimab (Beyfortus)

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Administered as a single IM dose per season. It is indicated for prevention of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) lower respiratory tract disease in neonates and infants born during or entering their first RSV season, and in children up to 24 months of age who remain vulnerable to severe RSV disease through their second RSV season.

Class Summary

High-dose intravenous immunoglobulin has been used successfully in conjunction with ganciclovir for the treatment of CMV pneumonia.

Immune globulin IV (Gamimune, Gammagard, Sandoglobulin, Gammar-P)

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Immune globulin IV neutralizes circulating myelin antibodies through anti-idiotypic antibodies. It down-regulates proinflammatory cytokines, including INF-gamma; blocks Fc receptors on macrophages; suppresses inducer T cells and B cells; and augments suppressor T cells. The drug also blocks the complement cascade, promotes remyelination, and may increase CSF IgG levels (10%).

Class Summary

Many patients with viral pneumonia have bronchospasm, which is relieved or improved with the use of beta-agonist drugs.

Albuterol (Proventil)

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Albuterol is a beta-agonist used to treat bronchospasm. It relaxes bronchial smooth muscle with its action on beta2-receptors. It has little effect on cardiac muscle contractility.

Class Summary

Two RSV vaccines for older adults were approved in May 2023 to reduce morbidity and mortality from RSV infection.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccine, adjuvanted (Arexvy)

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The vaccine contains a recombinant subunit prefusion RSV F glycoprotein antigen (RSVPreF3) combined with AS01E adjuvant. It is indicated for active immunization for prevention of lower respiratory tract disease caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection in adults aged 60 years and older.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccine (Abrysvo)

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The vaccine is composed of equal amounts of recombinant RSV prefusion F from subgroups A and B. It is indicated for active immunization for prevention of lower respiratory tract disease caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection in adults aged 60 years and older.

Questions

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Media Gallery

Pneumonia, viral: A 52-year-old woman developed fever, cough, and dyspnea. She also developed a rash that was prominent over the face and the trunk. The chest radiograph showed interstitial infiltrates, with suggestion of a micronodular process. The Tzanck smear results from the skin vesicle suggest varicella-zoster virus.
Pneumonia, viral: A 52-year-old woman developed fever, cough, and dyspnea. She also developed a rash that was prominent over the face and the trunk. The chest radiograph showed interstitial infiltrates, with suggestion of a micronodular process. The Tzanck smear results from the skin vesicle suggest varicella-zoster virus. She was treated with acyclovir; resolution of varicella-zoster virus infection occurred after 7 days of therapy.
Bilateral interstitial infiltrates in a 31-year-old patient with influenza pneumonia.
Right-middle-lobe infiltrate in a 2-month-old boy with pneumonia due to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV).
High-power Papanicolaou (Pap) stain showing a virus on a bronchial wash. Viruses in general show "smudgy" nuclei, may or may not show nuclear or cytoplasmic inclusions, and may demonstrate other features such as multinucleation or margination of chromatin to the periphery of the cell nucleus. Certain features are more indicative of one virus over another. This is an example of herpes virus (cells infected are located in the center right).
High-power Papanicolaou (Pap) stain of cytomegalovirus (center). This cell has a very large, dark intranuclear inclusion.
High-power hematoxin-and-eosin stain of giant cell pneumonia following measles. A multinucleated cell (center) contains eosinophilic intranuclear inclusions.
High-power hematoxin-and-eosin stain of numerous cells infected with the cytomegalovirus (large cells with enlarged nuclei containing dark-purple intranuclear inclusions surrounded by a clear halo).
High-power hematoxin-and-eosin stained herpes simplexvirus, characterized by "smudgy" degenerating nuclei. Some cells are multinucleated with margination of the chromatin to the periphery of the nuclei and molding of the nuclei to each other.

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Table 1. Diagnostic Techniques Used for Viral Pneumonia

Virus	Viral Culture	Cytologic Evaluation	Rapid Antigen Detection	Gene Amplification
Influenza virus	HA^a, SV^b		IF^c, ELISA^d	RT-PCR^e
Adenovirus	CE^f, SV	Intranuclear inclusions	IF, ELISA	RT-PCR
Paramyxoviruses
Respiratory syncytial virus	CE, SV	Eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusions	IF, ELISA	RT-PCR
Parainfluenza virus	HA, SV	Eosinophilic intranuclear inclusions	IF, ELISA	RT-PCR
Measles virus	HA
Herpes viruses
Herpes simplex virus	CE, SV	Cytoplasmic inclusions	IF, ELISA	PCR
Varicella-zoster virus	CE	Cytoplasmic inclusions	IF	RT-PCR
Cytomegalovirus	CE, SV	"Owl's eye" cells	IF, ELISA	RT-PCR
Hantavirus			Antibodies against FCV^g	FVC RNA by RT-PCR
^a HA - Hemaglutination ^b SV - Shell viral culture ^c IF - Immunofluorescence ^d ELISA - Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay ^eRT-PCR - Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction ^fCE - Cytopathogenic effects ^gFCV - Four corners virus

Table 2. Treatment and Prevention of Common Causes of Viral Pneumonia

Virus	Treatment	Prevention
Influenza virus	Oseltamivir Peramivir Zanamivir	Influenza vaccine^[78] Chemoprophylaxis with: Zanamivir Oseltamivir
Respiratory syncytial virus	Ribavirin	RSV vaccine (adults ≥ 60 y) Palivizumab or nirsevimab (children < 2 y)
Parainfluenza virus	Ribavirin
Herpes simplex virus	Acyclovir
Varicella-zoster virus	Acyclovir	Varicella-zoster immunoglobulin
Adenovirus	Ribavirin
Measles virus	Ribavirin	Intravenous immunoglobulin
Cytomegalovirus	Ganciclovir Foscarnet	Intravenous immunoglobulin

Table 3. Characteristics of Anti-Influenza Drugs

	Amantadine (Symmetrel)	Rimantadine (Flumadine)	Zanamivir (Relenza)	Oseltamivir (Tamiflu)
Mechanism of action	M2 ion channel blockade inhibits HA^a cleavage beta block RNA encoding, which reduces early viral replication.		Viral NA^b inhibition prevents sialic acid cleavage from HA beta virus gets trapped inside cells, and epithelial spread is blocked.
Spectrum	Influenza A only	Influenza A only	Influenza A and B	Influenza A and B
Oral bioavailability	Good	Good	Poor	Good
Protein binding, %	67	40	None	Minimal
Half-life, h	12-18	24-36	2.5-5	1-3
Excretion	Renal (not removed by hemodialysis)		Renal and gastrointestinal	Renal
Drug interaction	Synergistic CNS toxicity with antihistamines, anticholinergics, CNS stimulants	Beta Plasma level: ASA^c, acetaminophen	None	None
Renal clearance	TMP-SMZ^d, triamterene, hydrochlorothiazide, quinine sulfate, quinidine	Cimetidine	None	None
^a HA - Hemagglutinin ^b NA - Neuraminidase ^c ASA - Acetylsalicylic acid ^d TMP-SMZ - Trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole

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Author

Zab Mosenifar, MD, FACP, FCCP Geri and Richard Brawerman Chair in Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Professor and Executive Vice Chairman, Department of Medicine, Medical Director, Women's Guild Lung Institute, Cedars Sinai Medical Center, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine

Zab Mosenifar, MD, FACP, FCCP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Physicians, American Federation for Medical Research, American Thoracic Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)

Arthur Jeng, MD Assistant Professor of Clinical Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles School of Medicine

Arthur Jeng, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Infectious Diseases Society of America

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Nader Kamangar, MD, FACP, FCCP, FCCM Professor of Clinical Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine; Chief, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Vice-Chair, Department of Medicine, Olive View-UCLA Medical Center

Nader Kamangar, MD, FACP, FCCP, FCCM is a member of the following medical societies: Academy of Persian Physicians, American Academy of Sleep Medicine, American Association for Bronchology and Interventional Pulmonology, American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Critical Care Medicine, American College of Physicians, American Lung Association, American Medical Association, American Thoracic Society, Association of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine Program Directors, Association of Specialty Professors, California Sleep Society, California Thoracic Society, Clerkship Directors in Internal Medicine, Society of Critical Care Medicine, Trudeau Society of Los Angeles, World Association for Bronchology and Interventional Pulmonology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

John J Oppenheimer, MD Clinical Professor, Department of Medicine, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School; Director of Clinical Research, Pulmonary and Allergy Associates, PA

John J Oppenheimer, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology, American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, New Jersey Allergy, Asthma and Immunology Society

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: Amgen; GSK; Aquestive; Aimmune<br/>Clinical Adjudication/Data Safety Monitoring Board for AZ, GSK, Abbvie, Sanofi; Executive Editor for Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology; Editor for Medscape; Reviewer for UpToDate; Honoraria from American Board of Allergy and Immunology.

Acknowledgements

Shakeel Amanullah, MD Consulting Physician, Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Lancaster General Hospital

Shakeel Amanullah, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, and Society of Critical Care Medicine