Albers D, Hoke B. Techniques in Achilles tendon rehabilitation. Tech Foot Ankle Surg. 2003. 2(3):208-19.
Asplund CA, Best TM. Achilles tendon disorders. BMJ. 2013 Mar 12. 346:f1262. [Medline].
Lopez RG, Jung HG. Achilles tendinosis: treatment options. Clin Orthop Surg. 2015 Mar. 7 (1):1-7. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Chan AP, Chan YY, Fong DT, Wong PY, Lam HY, Lo CK, et al. Clinical and biomechanical outcome of minimal invasive and open repair of the Achilles tendon. Sports Med Arthrosc Rehabil Ther Technol. 2011 Dec 20. 3(1):32. [Medline].
Nilsson-Helander K, Silbernagel KG, Thomeé R, Faxén E, Olsson N, Eriksson BI, et al. Acute achilles tendon rupture: a randomized, controlled study comparing surgical and nonsurgical treatments using validated outcome measures. Am J Sports Med. 2010 Nov. 38(11):2186-93. [Medline].
Khan RJ, Fick D, Keogh A, Crawford J, Brammar T, Parker M. Treatment of acute achilles tendon ruptures. A meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2005 Oct. 87(10):2202-10. [Medline].
Childress MA, Beutler A. Management of chronic tendon injuries. Am Fam Physician. 2013 Apr 1. 87(7):486-90. [Medline].
Wiegerinck JI, Kerkhoffs GM, van Sterkenburg MN, Sierevelt IN, van Dijk CN. Treatment for insertional Achilles tendinopathy: a systematic review. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2013 Jun. 21(6):1345-55. [Medline].
Stevens M, Tan CW. Effectiveness of the Alfredson protocol compared with a lower repetition-volume protocol for midportion Achilles tendinopathy: a randomized controlled trial. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2014 Feb. 44(2):59-67. [Medline].
Moore KL. Clinically Oriented Anatomy. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999.
Kader D, Saxena A, Movin T, Maffulli N. Achilles tendinopathy: some aspects of basic science and clinical management. Br J Sports Med. 2002 Aug. 36(4):239-49. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Aström M, Westlin N. Blood flow in chronic Achilles tendinopathy. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1994 Nov. 166-72. [Medline].
Aström M, Westlin N. Blood flow in the human Achilles tendon assessed by laser Doppler flowmetry. J Orthop Res. 1994 Mar. 12(2):246-52. [Medline].
Carr AJ, Norris SH. The blood supply of the calcaneal tendon. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1989 Jan. 71(1):100-1. [Medline].
Gaida J, Alfredson H, Forsgren S, Cook J. Decreased tumour necrosis factor alpha (tnf-a) in serum of patients with achilles tendinopathy: further evidence against the role of inflammation in the chronic stage. Br J Sports Med. 2014 Apr. 48(7):597. [Medline].
Keene JS. Tendon injuries of the foot and ankle. DeLee JC, Drez D, eds. Orthopaedic Sports Medicine. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders; 1994. 1788-94.
Saltzman C, Bonar S. Tendon problems of the foot and ankle. Lutter LD, Mizel MS, Pfeffer GB, eds. Orthopaedic Knowledge Update: Foot and Ankle. Rosemont, Ill: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons; 1994. 236-73.
Wheaton MT, Molnar TJ. Overuse injuries of the lower extremities. Griffin, LY, ed. Orthopaedic Knowledge Update: Sports Medicine. Rosemont, Ill: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons; 1994. 225-7.
De Jonge S, Warnaars JL, De Vos RJ, Weir A, van Schie HT, Bierma-Zeinstra SM, et al. Relationship between neovascularization and clinical severity in Achilles tendinopathy in 556 paired measurements. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2013 Apr 22. [Medline].
Schepsis AA, Jones H, Haas AL. Achilles tendon disorders in athletes. Am J Sports Med. 2002 Mar-Apr. 30(2):287-305. [Medline].
Kannus P, Józsa L. Histopathological changes preceding spontaneous rupture of a tendon. A controlled study of 891 patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1991 Dec. 73(10):1507-25. [Medline].
Yuan J, Wang MX, Murrell GA. Cell death and tendinopathy. Clin Sports Med. 2003 Oct. 22(4):693-701. [Medline].
Józsa L, Kannus P. Histopathological findings in spontaneous tendon ruptures. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 1997 Apr. 7(2):113-8. [Medline].
Maffulli N, Barrass V, Ewen SW. Light microscopic histology of achilles tendon ruptures. A comparison with unruptured tendons. Am J Sports Med. 2000 Nov-Dec. 28(6):857-63. [Medline].
Zanetti M, Metzdorf A, Kundert HP, Zollinger H, Vienne P, Seifert B, et al. Achilles tendons: clinical relevance of neovascularization diagnosed with power Doppler US. Radiology. 2003 May. 227(2):556-60. [Medline].
Ohberg L, Alfredson H. Effects on neovascularisation behind the good results with eccentric training in chronic mid-portion Achilles tendinosis?. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2004 Sep. 12(5):465-70. [Medline].
Alfredson H, Ohberg L, Forsgren S. Is vasculo-neural ingrowth the cause of pain in chronic Achilles tendinosis? An investigation using ultrasonography and colour Doppler, immunohistochemistry, and diagnostic injections. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2003 Sep. 11(5):334-8. [Medline].
Cetti R, Junge J, Vyberg M. Spontaneous rupture of the Achilles tendon is preceded by widespread and bilateral tendon damage and ipsilateral inflammation: a clinical and histopathologic study of 60 patients. Acta Orthop Scand. 2003 Feb. 74(1):78-84. [Medline].
Harries M. Oxford textbook of Sports Medicine. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; Chapt 4.4.3.
Maffulli N, Ewen SW, Waterston SW, Reaper J, Barrass V. Tenocytes from ruptured and tendinopathic achilles tendons produce greater quantities of type III collagen than tenocytes from normal achilles tendons. An in vitro model of human tendon healing. Am J Sports Med. 2000 Jul-Aug. 28(4):499-505. [Medline].
Whittaker P, Canham PB. Demonstration of quantitative fabric analysis of tendon collagen using two-dimensional polarized light microscopy. Matrix. 1991 Feb. 11(1):56-62. [Medline].
Kvist M. Achilles tendon injuries in athletes. Sports Med. 1994 Sep. 18(3):173-201. [Medline].
Scott RT, Hyer CF, Granata A. The correlation of Achilles tendinopathy and body mass index. Foot Ankle Spec. 2013 Aug. 6(4):283-5. [Medline].
Van Ginckel A, Thijs Y, Hesar NG, Mahieu N, De Clercq D, Roosen P, et al. Intrinsic gait-related risk factors for Achilles tendinopathy in novice runners: a prospective study. Gait Posture. 2009 Apr. 29(3):387-91. [Medline].
Hofmann GO, Weber T, Lob G. [Tendon rupture in chronic kidney insufficiency--"uremic tendonopathy"? A literature-supported documentation of 3 cases]. Chirurg. 1990 Jun. 61(6):434-7. [Medline].
Spencer JD. Spontaneous rupture of tendons in dialysis and renal transplant patients. Injury. 1988 Mar. 19(2):86-8. [Medline].
Jozsa L, Balint JB, Kannus P, Reffy A, Barzo M. Distribution of blood groups in patients with tendon rupture. An analysis of 832 cases. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1989 Mar. 71(2):272-4. [Medline].
Kujala UM, Järvinen M, Natri A, Lehto M, Nelimarkka O, Hurme M, et al. ABO blood groups and musculoskeletal injuries. Injury. 1992. 23(2):131-3. [Medline].
Kraemer R, Wuerfel W, Lorenzen J, Busche M, Vogt PM, Knobloch K. Analysis of hereditary and medical risk factors in Achilles tendinopathy and Achilles tendon ruptures: a matched pair analysis. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 2012 Jun. 132(6):847-53. [Medline].
Shrier I, Matheson GO, Kohl HW 3rd. Achilles tendonitis: are corticosteroid injections useful or harmful?. Clin J Sport Med. 1996 Oct. 6(4):245-50. [Medline].
Newnham DM, Douglas JG, Legge JS, Friend JA. Achilles tendon rupture: an underrated complication of corticosteroid treatment. Thorax. 1991 Nov. 46(11):853-4. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Malaguti M, Triolo L, Biagini M. Ciprofloxacin-associated Achilles tendon rupture in a hemodialysis patient. J Nephrol. 2001 Sep-Oct. 14(5):431-2. [Medline].
Harrell RM. Fluoroquinolone-induced tendinopathy: what do we know?. South Med J. 1999 Jun. 92(6):622-5. [Medline].
Diehl J. Platelet-rich plasma therapy in chronic Achilles tendinopathy. Tech Foot Ankle Surg. March 2011. 10(1):2-6.
Malliou P, Rokka S, Beneka A, Gioftsidou A, Mavromoustakos S, Godolias G. Analysis of the chronic lower limb injuries occurrence in step aerobic instructors in relation to their working step class profile - A three year longitudinal prospective study. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil. 2014 Feb 20. [Medline].
Maffulli N, Longo UG, Maffulli GD, Khanna A, Denaro V. Achilles tendon ruptures in elite athletes. Foot Ankle Int. 2011 Jan. 32(1):9-15. [Medline].
Arøen A, Helgø D, Granlund OG, Bahr R. Contralateral tendon rupture risk is increased in individuals with a previous Achilles tendon rupture. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2004 Feb. 14(1):30-3. [Medline].
Almekinders LC, Weinhold PS, Maffulli N. Compression etiology in tendinopathy. Clin Sports Med. 2003 Oct. 22(4):703-10. [Medline].
Aström M. Partial rupture in chronic achilles tendinopathy. A retrospective analysis of 342 cases. Acta Orthop Scand. 1998 Aug. 69(4):404-7. [Medline].
Hutchison AM, Evans R, Bodger O, Pallister I, Topliss C, Williams P, et al. What is the best clinical test for Achilles tendinopathy?. Foot Ankle Surg. 2013 Jun. 19(2):112-7. [Medline].
de Jonge S, van den Berg C, de Vos RJ, van der Heide HJ, Weir A, Verhaar JA, et al. Incidence of midportion Achilles tendinopathy in the general population. Br J Sports Med. 2011 Oct. 45(13):1026-8. [Medline].
Saxena A, Ewen B, Maffulli N. Rehabilitation of the operated achilles tendon: parameters for predicting return to activity. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2011 Jan-Feb. 50(1):37-40. [Medline].
Westin O, Nilsson Helander K, Gravare Silbernagel K, Samuelsson K, Brorsson A, Karlsson J. Patients with an Achilles tendon re-rupture have long-term functional deficits in function and worse patient-reported outcome than primary ruptures. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2018 Apr 24. [Medline].
Jildeh TR, Okoroha KR, Marshall NE, Abdul-Hak A, Zeni F, Moutzouros V. Infection and Rerupture After Surgical Repair of Achilles Tendons. Orthop J Sports Med. 2018 May. 6 (5):2325967118774302. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Tonarelli JM, Mabry LM, Ross MD. Diagnostic imaging of an Achilles tendon rupture. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2011 Nov. 41(11):904. [Medline].
De Zordo T, Chhem R, Smekal V, Feuchtner G, Reindl M, Fink C, et al. Real-time sonoelastography: findings in patients with symptomatic achilles tendons and comparison to healthy volunteers. Ultraschall Med. 2010 Aug. 31(4):394-400. [Medline].
Juras V, Zbyn S, Pressl C, Domayer SE, Hofstaetter JG, Mayerhoefer ME, et al. Sodium MR Imaging of Achilles Tendinopathy at 7 T: Preliminary Results. Radiology. 2012 Jan. 262(1):199-205. [Medline].
McCormack R, Bovard J. Early functional rehabilitation or cast immobilisation for the postoperative management of acute Achilles tendon rupture? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br J Sports Med. 2015 Oct. 49 (20):1329-35. [Medline].
Grigg NL, Stevenson NJ, Wearing SC, et al. Incidental walking activity is sufficient to induce time-dependent conditioning of the Achilles tendon. Gait Posture. 2009 Oct 5. [Medline].
Henriksen M, Aaboe J, Bliddal H, et al. Biomechanical characteristics of the eccentric Achilles tendon exercise. J Biomech. 2009 Sep 21. [Medline].
Gardin A, Movin T, Svensson L, et al. The long-term clinical and MRI results following eccentric calf muscle training in chronic Achilles tendinosis. Skeletal Radiol. 2009 Sep 23. [Medline].
Hawkins D, Lum C, Gaydos D, et al. Dynamic creep and pre-conditioning of the Achilles tendon in-vivo. J Biomech. 2009 Sep 15. [Medline].
Maempel JF, Clement ND, Wickramasinghe NR, Duckworth AD, Keating JF. Operative repair of acute Achilles tendon rupture does not give superior patient-reported outcomes to nonoperative management. Bone Joint J. 2020 Jul. 102-B (7):933-40. [Medline].
Ecker TM, Bremer AK, Krause FG, Muller T, Weber M. Prospective Use of a Standardized Nonoperative Early Weightbearing Protocol for Achilles Tendon Rupture: 17 Years of Experience. Am J Sports Med. 2016 Apr. 44 (4):1004-10. [Medline].
Cohen RS, Balcom TA. Current treatment options for ankle injuries: lateral ankle sprain, Achilles tendonitis, and Achilles rupture. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2003 Oct. 2(5):251-4. [Medline].
Alfredson H, Pietilä T, Jonsson P, Lorentzon R. Heavy-load eccentric calf muscle training for the treatment of chronic Achilles tendinosis. Am J Sports Med. 1998 May-Jun. 26(3):360-6. [Medline].
Rees JD, Lichtwark GA, Wolman RL, Wilson AM. The mechanism for efficacy of eccentric loading in Achilles tendon injury; an in vivo study in humans. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2008 Oct. 47(10):1493-7. [Medline].
Reese RC Jr, Burruss TP, Patten J. Athletic training techniques and protective equipment. Nicholas JA, Hershman EB, eds. The Lower Extremity & Spine in Sports Medicine. 2nd ed. St Louis, Mo: Mosby; 1995. 267-75.
Marsolais D, Côté CH, Frenette J. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug reduces neutrophil and macrophage accumulation but does not improve tendon regeneration. Lab Invest. 2003 Jul. 83(7):991-9. [Medline].
Ohberg L, Alfredson H. Ultrasound guided sclerosis of neovessels in painful chronic Achilles tendinosis: pilot study of a new treatment. Br J Sports Med. 2002 Jun. 36(3):173-5; discussion 176-7. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Clementson M, Lorén I, Dahlberg L, Aström M. Sclerosing injections in midportion Achilles tendinopathy: a retrospective study of 25 patients. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2008 Sep. 16(9):887-90. [Medline].
de Jonge S, de Vos RJ, Weir A, van Schie HT, Bierma-Zeinstra SM, Verhaar JA, et al. One-year follow-up of platelet-rich plasma treatment in chronic Achilles tendinopathy: a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial. Am J Sports Med. 2011 Aug. 39(8):1623-9. [Medline].
Mautner K, Colberg RE, Malanga G, Borg-Stein JP, Harmon KG, Dharamsi AS, et al. Outcomes after ultrasound-guided platelet-rich plasma injections for chronic tendinopathy: a multicenter, retrospective review. PM R. 2013 Mar. 5(3):169-75. [Medline].
Di Matteo B, Filardo G, Kon E, Marcacci M. Platelet-rich plasma: evidence for the treatment of patellar and Achilles tendinopathy--a systematic review. Musculoskelet Surg. 2015 Apr. 99 (1):1-9. [Medline].
Paoloni JA, Appleyard RC, Nelson J, Murrell GA. Topical glyceryl trinitrate treatment of chronic noninsertional achilles tendinopathy. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004 May. 86-A(5):916-22. [Medline].
Fox A, Murrell G. Nitric oxide and tendon healing. Tech Orthoped. 2007. 22(1):14-9.
Al-Abbad H, Simon JV. The effectiveness of extracorporeal shock wave therapy on chronic achilles tendinopathy: a systematic review. Foot Ankle Int. 2013 Jan. 34(1):33-41. [Medline].
Rompe JD, Furia J, Maffulli N. Eccentric loading versus eccentric loading plus shock-wave treatment for midportion achilles tendinopathy: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Sports Med. 2009 Mar. 37(3):463-70. [Medline].
McLaughian GJ, Handol HG. Interventions for treating acute and chronic Achilles tendinitis. (Cochrane review). The Cochrane Library,. Chichester, UK: John Wiley and Sons; Issue 1:
Brosseau L, Casimiro L, Milne S, Robinson V, Shea B, Tugwell P, et al. Deep transverse friction massage for treating tendinitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002. CD003528. [Medline].
Zhang BM, Zhong LW, Xu SW, Jiang HR, Shen J. Acupuncture for chronic Achilles tendnopathy: a randomized controlled study. Chin J Integr Med. 2013 Dec. 19(12):900-4. [Medline].
Wegrzyn J, Luciani JF, Philippot R, et al. Chronic Achilles tendon rupture reconstruction using a modified flexor hallucis longus transfer. Int Orthop. 2009 Aug 21. [Medline].
Metz R, Verleisdonk EJ, van der Heijden GJ, Clevers GJ, Hammacher ER, Verhofstad MH, et al. Acute Achilles tendon rupture: minimally invasive surgery versus nonoperative treatment with immediate full weightbearing--a randomized controlled trial. Am J Sports Med. 2008 Sep. 36(9):1688-94. [Medline].
Twaddle BC, Poon P. Early motion for Achilles tendon ruptures: is surgery important? A randomized, prospective study. Am J Sports Med. 2007 Dec. 35(12):2033-8. [Medline].
Keller A, Ortiz C, Wagner E, Wagner P, Mococain P. Mini-Open Tenorrhaphy of Acute Achilles Tendon Ruptures: Medium-Term Follow-up of 100 Cases. Am J Sports Med. 2014 Mar. 42(3):731-6. [Medline].
Wilkins R, Bisson LJ. Operative versus nonoperative management of acute Achilles tendon ruptures: a quantitative systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Am J Sports Med. 2012 Sep. 40(9):2154-60. [Medline].
Erickson BJ, Mascarenhas R, Saltzman BM, et al. Is Operative Treatment of Achilles Tendon Ruptures Superior to Nonoperative Treatment?: A Systematic Review of Overlapping Meta-analyses. Orthop J Sports Med. 2015 Apr. 3 (4):2325967115579188. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Amendola A. Outcomes of open surgery versus nonoperative management of acute achilles tendon rupture. Clin J Sport Med. 2014 Jan. 24(1):90-1. [Medline].
DeLee JC, Drez D Jr, Miller MD, eds. Orthopaedic Sports Medicine. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders; 2003.
Pajala A, Kangas J, Siira P, Ohtonen P, Leppilahti J. Augmented compared with nonaugmented surgical repair of a fresh total Achilles tendon rupture. A prospective randomized study. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2009 May. 91(5):1092-100. [Medline].
Rahm S, Spross C, Gerber F, Farshad M, Buck FM, Espinosa N. Operative treatment of chronic irreparable Achilles tendon ruptures with large flexor hallucis longus tendon transfers. Foot Ankle Int. 2013 Aug. 34(8):1100-10. [Medline].
Silbernagel KG, Nilsson-Helander K, Thomee R, et al. A new measurement of heel-rise endurance with the ability to detect functional deficits in patients with Achilles tendon rupture. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2009 Aug 19. [Medline].
Maquirriain J, Kokalj A. Acute Achilles tendinopathy: effect of pain control on leg stiffness. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2014 Mar. 14(1):131-6. [Medline].