Gingivitis Guidelines

1. Zachary Brian, DMD, MHA1; Jane A. Weintraub, DDS, MPH. Oral Health and COVID-19: Increasing the Need for Prevention and Access. Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2020/20_0266.htm. August 2020; Accessed: Oct 14 2020.

2. Holm-Pederson P., Muller F., Lang, N. Pathology and Treatment of Gingivitis in the Aging Individual. Textbook of Geriatric Dentistry. Textbook of Geriatric Dentistry. 3. John Wiley & Sons; Jun 19, 2015. 211-223. [Full Text].

3. Idigbe EO, Enwonwu CO, Falkler WA, et al. Living conditions of children at risk for noma: Nigerian experience. Oral Dis. 1999 Apr. 5(2):156-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Dorfer CE, Becher H, Ziegler CM, et al. The association of gingivitis and periodontitis with ischemic stroke. J Clin Periodontol. 2004 May. 31(5):396-401. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

5. Hujoel PP, Drangsholt M, Spiekerman C, DeRouen TA. Periodontal disease and coronary heart disease risk. JAMA. 2000 Sep 20. 284(11):1406-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

6. Wu T, Trevisan M, Genco RJ, et al. Periodontal disease and risk of cerebrovascular disease: the first national health and nutrition examination survey and its follow-up study. Arch Intern Med. 2000 Oct 9. 160(18):2749-55. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

7. Fifer K, Subramanian S, Fontanez S, Figueroa A, Brady TJ, Tawakol A. High periodontal disease activity is associated with subsequent carotid artery stenosis progression. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011. 57:E1571.

8. Rastogi P, Singhal R, Sethi A, Agarwal A, Singh VK, Sethi R. Assessment of the effect of periodontal treatment in patients with coronary artery disease : A pilot survey. J Cardiovasc Dis Research. 2012. 3:124-27. [Full Text].

9. Lockhart PB, Bolger AF, Papapanou PN, et al. Periodontal Disease and Atherosclerotic Vascular Disease: Does the Evidence Support an Independent Association?: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2012 Apr 18. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. Eberhard. J. Grote K, Luchtefeld M. et al. Experimental Gingivitis Induces Systemic Inflammatory Markers in Young Healthy Individuals: A Single-Subject Interventional Study. PLOS ONE. 02/07/2013. [Full Text].

11. Sen S, Giamberardino LD, Moss K, Morelli T, Rosamond WD, Gottesman RF, et al. Periodontal Disease, Regular Dental Care Use, and Incident Ischemic Stroke. Stroke. 2018 Jan 15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

12. Rydén L, Buhlin K, Ekstrand E, de Faire U, Gustafsson A, Holmer J, et al. Periodontitis Increases the Risk of a First Myocardial Infarction: A Report From the PAROKRANK Study. Circulation. 2016 Feb 9. 133 (6):576-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

13. Busko M. Periodontitis Seen Related to Elevated Risk of First MI. Heartwire from Medscape. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/857484. January 20, 2016; Accessed: June 3, 2016.

14. Bobetsis YA, Barros SP, Offenbacher S. Exploring the relationship between periodontal disease and pregnancy complications. J Am Dent Assoc. 2006 Oct. 137 Suppl 2:7S-13S. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

15. Baccaglini L. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials shows no evidence that periodontal treatment during pregnancy prevents adverse pregnancy outcomes. J Am Dent Assoc. 2011 Oct. 142(10):1192-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

16. Persson R, Hitti J, Verhelst R, Vaneechoutte M, Persson R, Hirschi R, et al. The vaginal microflora in relation to gingivitis. BMC Infect Dis. 2009 Jan 22. 9:6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

17. Mealey BL. Periodontal disease and diabetes: A two-way street. J Am Dent Assoc. 2006 Oct. 137 Suppl 2:26S-31S. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Perez A, Wagner AM, Carreras G, et al. Prevalence and phenotypic distribution of dyslipidemia in type 1 diabetes mellitus: effect of glycemic control. Arch Intern Med. 2000 Oct 9. 160(18):2756-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Kardesler L, Buduneli N, Cetinkalp S, Kinane DF. Adipokines and inflammatory mediators after initial periodontal treatment in patients with type 2 diabetes and chronic periodontitis. J Periodontol. 2010 Jan. 81(1):24-33. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Pitones-Rubio V, Chávez-Cortez EG, Hurtado-Camarena A, González-Rascón A, Serafín-Higuera N. Is periodontal disease a risk factor for severe COVID-19 illness?. Med Hypotheses. 2020 Jun 19. 144:109969. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

21. Rafael Scaf de Molon , Carlos Rossa Jr , Rogier M Thurlings , Joni Augusto Cirelli , Marije I Koenders. Linkage of Periodontitis and Rheumatoid Arthritis: Current Evidence and Potential Biological Interactions. Int J Mol Sci . Sept 2019. 20:4541. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

22. Cronin M, Dembling W, Warren PR, King DW. A 3-month clinical investigation comparing the safety and efficacy of a novel electric toothbrush (Braun Oral-B 3D Plaque Remover) with a manual toothbrush. Am J Dent. 1998 Sep. 11(Spec No):S17-21. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. Forrest JL, Miller SA. Manual versus powered toothbrushes: a summary of the Cochrane Oral Health Group's Systematic Review. Part II. J Dent Hyg. 2004 Spring. 78(2):349-54. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

24. Elias-Boneta AR , Toro MJ , Noboa J , Romeu FL , Mateo LR , Ahmed R , et al. Efficacy of CPC and essential oils mouthwashes compared to a negative control mouthwash in controlling established dental plaque and gingivitis: A 6-week, randomized clinical trial. American Journal of Dentistry. 2015. 28 Spec No A:21A-6A. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Chapple ILC, Van der Weijden F, Doerfer C, Herrera D, Shapira L, Polak D, et al. Primary prevention of periodontitis: managing gingivitis. Journal of Clinical Periodontology. 2015. 42 (Suppl. 16):S71–S76. [Full Text].

26. Sanz M, Marco Del Castillo A, Jepsen S, et al. Periodontitis and cardiovascular diseases: consensus report. J Clin Periodontol. 2020 Mar. 47 (3):268-88. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

27. Lorenz K, Bruhn G, Heumann C, et al. Effect of two new chlorhexidine mouthrinses on the development of dental plaque, gingivitis, and discolouration. A randomized, investigator-blind, placebo-controlled, 3-week experimental gingivitis study. J Clin Periodontol. 2006 Aug. 33(8):561-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Zimmer S, Kolbe C, Kaiser G, et al. Clinical efficacy of flossing versus use of antimicrobial rinses. J Periodontol. 2006 Aug. 77(8):1380-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. Triratana T, Rustogi KN, Volpe AR, et al. Clinical effect of a new liquid dentifrice containing triclosan/copolymer on existing plaque and gingivitis. J Am Dent Assoc. 2002 Feb. 133(2):219-25. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

30. Taiyeb Ali TB, Waite IM. The effect of systemic ibuprofen on gingival inflammation in humans. J Clin Periodontol. 1993 Nov. 20(10):723-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Johnson RH, Armitage GC, Francisco C, Page RC. Assessment of the efficacy of a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, Naprosyn, in the treatment of gingivitis. J Periodontal Res. 1990 Jul. 25(4):230-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

32. Messier C, Epifano F, Genovese S, Grenier D. Licorice and its potential beneficial effects in common oro-dental diseases. Oral Dis. 2012 Jan. 18(1):32-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

33. Grbic J, Wexler I, Celenti R, Altman J, Saffer A. A phase II trial of a transmucosal herbal patch for the treatment of gingivitis. J Am Dent Assoc. 2011 Oct. 142(10):1168-75. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. Bahekar AA, Singh S, Saha S, Molnar J, Arora R. The prevalence and incidence of coronary heart disease is significantly increased in periodontitis: a meta-analysis. Am Heart J. 2007 Nov. 154(5):830-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

James M Stephen, MD, FAAEM, FACEP Assistant Professor, Tufts University School of Medicine; Attending Physician, Director of Graduate Education, Department of Emergency Medicine, Tufts Medical Center

James M Stephen, MD, FAAEM, FACEP is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Emergency Medicine, American College of Emergency Physicians

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Jeff Burgess, DDS, MSD (Retired) Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Oral Medicine, University of Washington School of Dental Medicine; (Retired) Attending in Pain Center, University of Washington Medical Center; (Retired) Private Practice in Hawaii and Washington; Director, Oral Care Research Associates

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Michael Glick, DMD Dean, University of Buffalo School of Dental Medicine

Michael Glick, DMD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Oral Medicine, American Dental Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mark W Fourre, MD Associate Clinical Professor, Department of Surgery, University of Vermont School of Medicine; Program Director, Department of Emergency Medicine, Maine Medical Center

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Robert J Lindberg; Special thanks to Robert J Lindberg, DMD, for images and excellent dental care.

• Print this section
• Print the entire contents of
• Print the entire contents of article