Pharyngitis Differential Diagnoses

1. Sykes EA, Wu V, Beyea MM, Simpson MTW, Beyea JA. Pharyngitis: Approach to diagnosis and treatment. Can Fam Physician. 2020 Apr. 66 (4):251-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

2. Alcaide AL, Bisno AL. Pharyngitis and epiglottitis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2006. 21:449-469.

3. Twefik TL, Al Garni M. Tonsillopharyngitis: Clinical highlights. J of Otolaryngology. 2005. 34:

4. Mostov PD. Treating the immunocompetent patient who presents with an upper respiratory infection: pharyngitis, sinusitis, and bronchitis. Prim Care. 2007 Mar. 34(1):39-58. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

5. Pichichero ME, Casey JR. Systematic review of factors contributing to penicillin treatment failure in Streptococcus pyogenes pharyngitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2007 Dec. 137(6):851-857. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

6. Banigo A, Moinie A, Bleach N, Chand M, Chalker V, Lamagni T. Have reducing tonsillectomy rates in England led to increasing incidence of invasive Group A Streptococcus infections in children?. Clin Otolaryngol. 2018 Mar 5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

7. [Guideline] Gerber MA, Baltimore RS, Eaton CB, et al. Prevention of rheumatic fever and diagnosis and treatment of acute Streptococcal pharyngitis: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, the Interdisciplinary Council on Functional Genomics and Translational Biology, and the Interdisciplinary Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research: endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics. Circulation. 2009 Mar 24. 119(11):1541-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Summary of notifiable diseases, United States, 1997. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1998 Nov 20. 46(54):ii-vii, 3-87. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

9. Kalra MG, Higgins KE, Perez ED. Common Questions About Streptococcal Pharyngitis. Am Fam Physician. 2016 Jul 1. 94 (1):24-31. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. Nishiyama M, Morioka I, Taniguchi-Ikeda M, et al. Clinical features predicting group A streptococcal pharyngitis in a Japanese paediatric primary emergency medical centre. J Int Med Res. 2018 Jan 1. 300060517752954. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

11. Shaikh N, Swaminathan N, Hooper EG. Accuracy and precision of the signs and symptoms of streptococcal pharyngitis in children: a systematic review. J Pediatr. 2012 Mar. 160(3):487-493.e3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

12. Centor RM, Allison JJ, Cohen SJ. Pharyngitis management: defining the controversy. J Gen Intern Med. 2007 Jan. 22(1):127-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

13. Shulman ST, Bisno AL, Clegg HW, Gerber MA, Kaplan EL, Lee G, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2012 Nov 15. 55(10):1279-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

14. Wagner FP, Mathiason MA. Using centor criteria to diagnose streptococcal pharyngitis. Nurse Pract. 2008 Sep. 33(9):10-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

15. McIsaac WJ, Goel V, To T, Low DE. The validity of a sore throat score in family practice. CMAJ. 2000 Oct 3. 163 (7):811-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

16. Fine AM, Nizet V, Mandl KD. Large-scale validation of the Centor and McIsaac scores to predict group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Arch Intern Med. 2012 Jun 11. 172 (11):847-52. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

17. Gerber MA. Diagnosis and treatment of pharyngitis in children. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2005 Jun. 52(3):729-47, vi. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Jo SA, Ma SH, Kim S. Diagnostic Impact of Clinical Manifestations of Group A Streptococcal Pharyngitis. Infect Chemother. 2021 Sep. 53 (3):553-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

19. Shapiro DJ, Barak-Corren Y, Neuman MI, Mandl KD, Harper MB, Fine AM. Identifying Patients at Lowest Risk for Streptococcal Pharyngitis: A National Validation Study. J Pediatr. 2020 May. 220:132-8.e2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Lemierre's syndrome, reemergence of a forgotten disease: a case report. Cases J. 2009 Mar 10. 2:6397. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

21. Gottlieb M, Long B, Koyfman A. Clinical Mimics: An Emergency Medicine-Focused Review of Streptococcal Pharyngitis Mimics. J Emerg Med. 2018 Mar 6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Tanz RR, Gerber MA, Kabat W, Rippe J, Seshadri R, Shulman ST. Performance of a rapid antigen-detection test and throat culture in community pediatric offices: implications for management of pharyngitis. Pediatrics. 2009 Feb. 123(2):437-44. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. Cohen JF, Cohen R, Bidet P, et al. Efficiency of a clinical prediction model for selective rapid testing in children with pharyngitis: A prospective, multicenter study. PLoS One. 2017. 12 (2):e0172871. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

24. Gerber MA, Shulman ST. Rapid diagnosis of pharyngitis caused by group A streptococci. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004 Jul. 17 (3):571-80, table of contents. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Tanz RR, Gerber MA, Kabat W, Rippe J, Seshadri R, Shulman ST. Performance of a rapid antigen-detection test and throat culture in community pediatric offices: implications for management of pharyngitis. Pediatrics. 2009 Feb. 123 (2):437-44. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

26. Del Mar CB, Glasziou PP, Spinks AB. Antibiotics for sore throat. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006 Oct 18. CD000023. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

27. Nakhoul GN, Hickner J. Management of adults with acute streptococcal pharyngitis: minimal value for backup strep testing and overuse of antibiotics. J Gen Intern Med. 2013 Jun. 28 (6):830-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Ayanruoh S, Waseem M, Quee F, Humphrey A, Reynolds T. Impact of rapid streptococcal test on antibiotic use in a pediatric emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2009 Nov. 25(11):748-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. Dingle TC, Abbott AN, Fang FC. Reflexive culture in adolescents and adults with group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Sep 1. 59 (5):643-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

30. Pelucchi C, Grigoryan L, Galeone C, Esposito S, Huovinen P, Little P, et al. Guideline for the management of acute sore throat. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012 Apr. 18 Suppl 1:1-28. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Patel NN, Patel DN. Acute exudative tonsillitis. Am J Med. 2009 Jan. 122(1):18-20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

32. Cohen JF, Cohen R, Levy C, et al. Selective testing strategies for diagnosing group A streptococcal infection in children with pharyngitis: a systematic review and prospective multicentre external validation study. CMAJ. 2015 Jan 6. 187(1):23-32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

33. Chiappini E, Bortone B, Di Mauro G, et al. Choosing Wisely: The Top-5 Recommendations from the Italian Panel of the National Guidelines for the Management of Acute Pharyngitis in Children. Clin Ther. 2017 Mar. 39 (3):646-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. Del Mar CB, Glasziou PP, Spinks AB. Antibiotics for sore throat (Review). The Cochrane Collaboration. 2007. (1):1-41.

35. Hayward G, Thompson MJ, Perera R, Glasziou PP, Del Mar CB, Heneghan CJ. Corticosteroids as standalone or add-on treatment for sore throat. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Oct 17. 10:CD008268. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

36. Tasar A, Yanturali S, Topacoglu H, Ersoy G, Unverir P, Sarikaya S. Clinical efficacy of dexamethasone for acute exudative pharyngitis. J Emerg Med. 2008 Nov. 35(4):363-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

37. Shephard A, Smith G, Aspley S, et al. Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies on flurbiprofen 8.75 mg lozenges in patients with/without group A or C streptococcal throat infection, with an assessment of clinicians' prediction of 'strep throat'. Int J Clin Pract. 2015 Jan. 69(1):59-71. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. Muller D, Lindemann T, Shah-Hosseini K, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of an ectoine mouth and throat spray compared with those of saline lozenges in the treatment of acute pharyngitis and/or laryngitis: a prospective, controlled, observational clinical trial. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2016 Apr 28. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

39. Fleming-Dutra KE, Hersh AL, Shapiro DJ, et al. Prevalence of Inappropriate Antibiotic Prescriptions Among US Ambulatory Care Visits, 2010-2011. JAMA. 2016 May 3. 315 (17):1864-73. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

40. Linder JA, Stafford RS. Antibiotic treatment of adults with sore throat by community primary care physicians: a national survey, 1989-1999. JAMA. 2001 Sep 12. 286 (10):1181-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

41. Barnett ML, Linder JA. Antibiotic prescribing to adults with sore throat in the United States, 1997-2010. JAMA Intern Med. 2014 Jan. 174 (1):138-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

42. Matthys J, De Meyere M, van Driel ML, De Sutter A. Differences among international pharyngitis guidelines: not just academic. Ann Fam Med. 2007 Sep-Oct. 5(5):436-43. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

43. Van Howe RS, Kusnier LP 2nd. Diagnosis and management of pharyngitis in a pediatric population based on cost-effectiveness and projected health outcomes. Pediatrics. 2006 Mar. 117(3):609-19. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

44. Pichichero ME. Pathogen shifts and changing cure rates for otitis media and tonsillopharyngitis. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2006 Jul. 45(6):493-502. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

45. Pichichero M, Casey J. Comparison of European and U.S. results for cephalosporin versus penicillin treatment of group A streptococcal tonsillopharyngitis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2006 Jun. 25(6):354-64. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

46. Brook I. Overcoming penicillin failures in the treatment of Group A streptococcal pharyngo-tonsillitis. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2007 Oct. 71(10):1501-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

47. Logan LK, McAuley JB, Shulman ST. Macrolide treatment failure in streptococcal pharyngitis resulting in acute rheumatic fever. Pediatrics. 2012 Mar. 129(3):e798-802. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

48. Depdham D, Rao S, Hitchcock K. Should you treat carriers of pharyngeal group A strep?. J Fam Pract. 2008. 57:

49. Altamimi S, Khalil A, Khalaiwi KA, Milner R, Pusic MV, Al Othman MA. Short versus standard duration antibiotic therapy for acute streptococcal pharyngitis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 Jan 21. CD004872. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

50. Korb K, Scherer M, Chenot JF. Steroids as adjuvant therapy for acute pharyngitis in ambulatory patients: a systematic review. Ann Fam Med. 2010 Jan-Feb. 8(1):58-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

51. Hayward G, Thompson M, Heneghan C, Perera R, Del Mar C, Glasziou P. Corticosteroids for pain relief in sore throat: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2009 Aug 6. 339:b2976. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

52. Wing A, Villa-Roel C, Yeh B, Eskin B, Buckingham J, Rowe BH. Effectiveness of Corticosteroid Treatment in Acute Pharyngitis: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Acad Emerg Med. 2010. 17(5):476-483.

53. Rick AM, Zaheer HA, Martin JM. Clinical Features of Group A Streptococcus in Children With Pharyngitis: Carriers versus Acute Infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2020 Feb 7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

54. Boggs W. What antibiotic strategy is best for adults with acute sore throat? Medscape Medical News. January 27, 2014; Accessed February 4, 2014. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/820008.

55. Huttner B. Antibiotic prescription for sore throat or the legacy of Mr X^2.. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014 Jan 16. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

56. Little P, Stuart B, Hobbs FD, Butler CC, Hay AD, Delaney B, et al. Antibiotic prescription strategies for acute sore throat: a prospective observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014 Jan 16. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

John R Acerra, MD Associate Professor, Department of Emergency Medicine, Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell; Director, Global Emergency Medicine Program, LIJ Medical Center and North Shore University Hospital, Northwell Health System

John R Acerra, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Emergency Medicine, American College of Emergency Physicians, Society for Academic Emergency Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Jeter (Jay) Pritchard Taylor, III, MD Assistant Professor, Department of Surgery, University of South Carolina School of Medicine; Attending Physician / Clinical Instructor, Compliance Officer, Department of Emergency Medicine, Prisma Health Richland Hospital

Jeter (Jay) Pritchard Taylor, III, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Emergency Medicine, American College of Emergency Physicians, American Medical Association, Columbia Medical Society, Society for Academic Emergency Medicine, South Carolina College of Emergency Physicians, South Carolina Medical Association

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: Employed contractor - Chief Editor for Medscape.

Jerry R Balentine, DO, FACEP, FACOEP Vice President, Medical Affairs and Global Health, New York Institute of Technology; Professor of Emergency Medicine, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine

Jerry R Balentine, DO, FACEP, FACOEP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Emergency Physicians, New York Academy of Medicine, American College of Osteopathic Emergency Physicians, American Association for Physician Leadership, American Osteopathic Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mark W Fourre, MD Associate Clinical Professor, Department of Surgery, University of Vermont School of Medicine; Program Director, Department of Emergency Medicine, Maine Medical Center

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

• Print this section
• Print the entire contents of
• Print the entire contents of article