Medication Summary

Medication for ACL injuries mainly consists of analgesics. Preoperative drugs may include cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and opioid analgesic agents. Postoperatively, the patient may obtain pain relief through nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and opioid analgesics. NSAIDS have been shown to decrease bone formation in spine fusions and rotator cuff surgery. Although this has not been seen clinically in ACL reconstructions with bone-patella tendon-bone grafts, it is plausible to think that this may be the case. Therefore, long-term postoperative use may not be beneficial.

Class Summary

Have analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities. Their mechanism of action is not known, but may inhibit cyclooxygenase activity and prostaglandin synthesis. Other mechanisms may exist as well, such as inhibition of leukotriene synthesis, lysosomal enzyme release, lipoxygenase activity, neutrophil aggregation and various cell membrane functions.

Ketorolac (Toradol)

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Inhibits prostaglandin synthesis by decreasing the activity of the enzyme, cyclo-oxygenase, which results in decreased formation of prostaglandin precursors. Used in postoperative pain control.

Ketorolac intranasal (Sprix)

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NSAID; inhibits cyclooxygenase (COX), an early component of the arachidonic acid cascade, resulting in reduced synthesis of prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and prostacyclin. Elicits anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic effects. Indicated for short-term (up to 5 d) management of moderate to moderately severe pain. Bioavailability of 31.5-mg intranasal dose (2 sprays) is approximately 60% of 30-mg IM dose. Intranasal spray delivers 15.75 mg per 100-µL spray; each 1.7-g bottle contains 8 sprays.

Class Summary

Although increased cost can be a negative factor, the incidence of costly and potentially fatal GI bleeds is clearly less with COX-2 inhibitors than with traditional NSAIDs. Ongoing analysis of cost avoidance of GI bleeds will further define the populations that will find COX-2 inhibitors the most beneficial.

Celecoxib (Celebrex)

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Inhibits primarily COX-2. COX-2 is considered an inducible isoenzyme, induced during pain and inflammatory stimuli. Inhibition of COX-1 may contribute to NSAID GI toxicity. At therapeutic concentrations, COX-1 isoenzyme is not inhibited thus GI toxicity may be decreased. Seek lowest dose of celecoxib for each patient. Used for postoperative pain control.

Follow-up

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Media Gallery

Proper technique for the Lachman test.
Anterior drawer test: Note the anterior excursion of the tibia in relationship to the femur.
The pivot shift test.
MRI displaying a ruptured anterior cruciate ligament.

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Author

Matthew Gammons, MD Assistant Clinical Professor, Department of Family and Community Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin; Medical Director, Castleton State College; Consulting Staff, Vermont Orthopaedic Clinic and Killington Medical Clinic

Matthew Gammons, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Family Physicians, American College of Sports Medicine, American Medical Society for Sports Medicine, American Society of Mechanical Engineers

Disclosure: Received income in an amount equal to or greater than $250 from: Up to Date.

Coauthor(s)

Evan Schwartz, MD Director of Orthopedic Surgery, St John's Queens Hospital, New York Medical College; Assistant Professor, Department of Surgery, Albert Einstein School of Medicine

Evan Schwartz, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Chief Editor

Sherwin SW Ho, MD Associate Professor, Department of Surgery, Section of Orthopedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Chicago Division of the Biological Sciences, The Pritzker School of Medicine

Sherwin SW Ho, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, Arthroscopy Association of North America, Herodicus Society, American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine

Disclosure: Received consulting fee from Biomet, Inc. for speaking and teaching; Received grant/research funds from Smith and Nephew for fellowship funding; Received grant/research funds from DJ Ortho for course funding; Received grant/research funds from Athletico Physical Therapy for course, research funding; Received royalty from Biomet, Inc. for consulting.

Additional Contributors

David T Bernhardt, MD Director of Adolescent and Sports Medicine Fellowship, Associate Professor, Department of Pediatrics/Ortho and Rehab, Division of Sports Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health

David T Bernhardt, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Sports Medicine, American Medical Society for Sports Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Acknowledgements

The authors and editors of Medscape Drugs & Diseases gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous author John D Hubbell, MD, to the development and writing of this article.