Frostbite Questions & Answers

1. Baran KC, van Munster IG, Vries AM, Gardien KLM, van Trier T, Pijpe A. Severe nitrous-oxide frostbite injuries on the rise in The Netherlands; let's raise awareness. Burns. 2020 Sep. 46 (6):1477-1479. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

2. Golding MR. Protection from early and late sequelae of frostbite by regional sympathectomy: mechanism of "cold sensitivity" following frostbite. Surgery. 1963;53:303-310.:

3. Hashmi MA, Rashid M, Haleem A, Bokhari SA, Hussain T. Frostbite: epidemiology at high altitude in the Karakoram mountains. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 1998 Mar. 80(2):91-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

4. Cappaert TA, Stone JA, Castellani JW, Krause BA, Smith D, Stephens BA. National Athletic Trainers' Association position statement: environmental cold injuries. J Athl Train. 2008 Oct-Dec. 43(6):640-58. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

5. Terra M, Vloemans AF, Breederveld RS. Frostbite injury: a paragliding accident at 5500 meters. Acta Chir Belg. 2013 Mar-Apr. 113 (2):143-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

6. Russell KW, Imray CH, McIntosh SE, Anderson R, Galbraith D, Hudson ST, et al. Kite skier's toe: an unusual case of frostbite. Wilderness Environ Med. 2013 Jun. 24 (2):136-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

7. Connor RR. Update: cold weather injuries, active and reserve components, U.S. Armed Forces, July 2009-June 2014. MSMR. 2014 Oct. 21 (10):14-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

8. McCauley RL, Hing DN, Robson MC, Heggers JP. Frostbite injuries: a rational approach based on the pathophysiology. J Trauma. 1983 Feb. 23(2):143-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

9. Heggers JP, Robson MC, Manavalen K, Weingarten MD, Carethers JM, Boertman JA, et al. Experimental and clinical observations on frostbite. Ann Emerg Med. 1987 Sep. 16(9):1056-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

10. Rivlin M, King M, Kruse R, Ilyas AM. Frostbite in an adolescent football player: a case report. J Athl Train. 2014 Jan-Feb. 49 (1):97-101. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

11. Ikawa G, dos Santos PA, Yamaguchi KT, Stroh-Recor C, Ibello R. Frostbite and bone scanning: the use of 99m-labeled phosphates in demarcating the line of viability in frostbite victims. Orthopedics. 1986 Sep. 9(9):1257-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

12. Koehler MM, Henninger CA. Orofacial and digital frostbite caused by inhalant abuse. Cutis. 2014 May. 93 (5):256-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

13. Kahn JE, Lidove O, Laredo JD, Blétry O. Frostbite arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2005 Jun. 64(6):966-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

14. Uygur F, Sever C, Noyan N. Frostbite burns caused by liquid oxygen. J Burn Care Res. 2009 Mar-Apr. 30(2):358-61. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

15. Kanzenbach TL, Dexter WW. Cold injuries. Protecting your patients from the dangers of hypothermia and frostbite. Postgrad Med. 1999 Jan. 105(1):72-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

16. Koljonen V, Andersson K, Mikkonen K, Vuola J. Frostbite injuries treated in the Helsinki area from 1995 to 2002. J Trauma. 2004 Dec. 57(6):1315-20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

17. McIntosh SE, Opacic M, Freer L, Grissom CK, Auerbach PS, Rodway GW, et al. Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of frostbite: 2014 update. Wilderness Environ Med. 2014 Dec. 25 (4 Suppl):S43-54. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Hutchison RL. Frostbite of the hand. J Hand Surg Am. 2014 Sep. 39 (9):1863-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Dana AS Jr, Rex IH Jr, Samitz MH. The hunting reaction. Arch Dermatol. 1969 Apr. 99(4):441-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Hirai K, Horvath SM, Weinstein V. Differences in the vascular hunting reaction between Caucasians and Japanese. Angiology. 1970 Sep. 21(8):502-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

21. Jobe JB, Goldman RF, Beetham WP Jr. Comparison of the hunting reaction in normals and individuals with Raynaud's disease. Aviat Space Environ Med. 1985 Jun. 56(6):568-71. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Tanaka M. Experimental studies on human reaction to cold. Differences in the vascular hunting reaction to cold according to sex, season, and environmental temperature. Bull Tokyo Med Dent Univ. 1971 Dec. 18(4):269-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. Zook N, Hussmann J, Brown R, Russell R, Kucan J, Roth A, et al. Microcirculatory studies of frostbite injury. Ann Plast Surg. 1998 Mar. 40(3):246-53; discussion 254-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

24. McCauley RL, Heggers JP, Robson MC. Frostbite. Methods to minimize tissue loss. Postgrad Med. 1990 Dec. 88(8):67-8, 73-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Golant A, Nord RM, Paksima N, Posner MA. Cold exposure injuries to the extremities. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2008 Dec. 16(12):704-15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

26. DeGroot DW, Castellani JW, Williams JO, Amoroso PJ. Epidemiology of U.S. Army cold weather injuries, 1980-1999. Aviat Space Environ Med. 2003 May. 74(5):564-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

27. Valnicek SM, Chasmar LR, Clapson JB. Frostbite in the prairies: a 12-year review. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1993 Sep. 92(4):633-41. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Ervasti O, Juopperi K, Kettunen P, Remes J, Rintamäki H, Latvala J, et al. The occurrence of frostbite and its risk factors in young men. Int J Circumpolar Health. 2004 Mar. 63(1):71-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. Juopperi K, Hassi J, Ervasti O, Drebs A, Näyhä S. Incidence of frostbite and ambient temperature in Finland, 1986-1995. A national study based on hospital admissions. Int J Circumpolar Health. 2002 Nov. 61(4):352-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

30. Koutsavlis AT, Kosatsky T. Environmental-temperature injury in a Canadian metropolis. J Environ Health. 2003 Dec. 66(5):40-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Harirchi I, Arvin A, Vash JH, Zafarmand V. Frostbite: incidence and predisposing factors in mountaineers. Br J Sports Med. 2005 Dec. 39(12):898-901; discussion 901. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

32. Mäkinen TM, Jokelainen J, Näyhä S, Laatikainen T, Jousilahti P, Hassi J. Occurrence of frostbite in the general population--work-related and individual factors. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2009 Oct. 35(5):384-93. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

33. Craig RP. Military cold injury during the war in the Falkland Islands 1982: an evaluation of possible risk factors. J R Army Med Corps. 2007. 153 Suppl 1:63-8; discussion 69. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. Burgess JE, Macfarlane F. Retrospective analysis of the ethnic origins of male British army soldiers with peripheral cold weather injury. J R Army Med Corps. 2009 Mar. 155(1):11-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

35. Maley MJ, Eglin CM, House JR, Tipton MJ. The effect of ethnicity on the vascular responses to cold exposure of the extremities. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2014 Nov. 114 (11):2369-79. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

36. Brandão RA, St John JM, Langan TM, Schneekloth BJ, Burns PR. Acute Compartment Syndrome of the Foot Due To Frostbite: Literature Review and Case Report. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2018 Mar - Apr. 57 (2):382-387. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

37. Brown FE, Spiegel PK, Boyle WE Jr. Digital deformity: an effect of frostbite in children. Pediatrics. 1983 Jun. 71(6):955-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. Long WB 3rd, Edlich RF, Winters KL, Britt LD. Cold injuries. J Long Term Eff Med Implants. 2005. 15(1):67-78. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

39. McCauley RL. Frostbite and other cold induced injuries. In: Auerbach PS, ed. Wilderness Medicine. St Louis, MO: Mosby; 1995:129-45:

40. Roche-Nagle G, Murphy D, Collins A, Sheehan S. Frostbite: management options. Eur J Emerg Med. 2008 Jun. 15(3):173-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

41. Kowal-Vern A, Latenser BA. Demographics of the homeless in an urban burn unit. J Burn Care Res. 2007 Jan-Feb. 28(1):105-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

42. Ducharme MB, Giesbrecht GG, Frim J, Kenny GP, Johnston CE, Goheen MS, et al. Forced-air rewarming in -20 degrees C simulated field conditions. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1997 Mar 15. 813:676-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

43. Vinceslio EM, Fayos Z, Bernadette A, Van Gent JM. Expeditionary Immersion Circulating Heating Device: A Promising Technique for Treating Frostbite Injuries and Warming Intravenous Fluids in a Forward Deployed Cold Weather Environment. Mil Med. 2020 Aug 20. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

44. Basit H, Wallen TJ, Dudley C. Frostbite. StatPearl [Internet]. 2020 Jan. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

45. Britt LD, Dascombe WH, Rodriguez A. New horizons in management of hypothermia and frostbite injury. Surg Clin North Am. 1991 Apr. 71(2):345-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

46. Martínez Villén G, García Bescos G, Rodriguez Sosa V, Morandeira García JR. Effects of haemodilution and rewarming with regard to digital amputation in frostbite injury: an experimental study in the rabbit. J Hand Surg Br. 2002 Jun. 27(3):224-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

47. Ibrahim AE, Goverman J, Sarhane KA, Donofrio J, Walker TG, Fagan SP. The emerging role of tissue plasminogen activator in the management of severe frostbite. J Burn Care Res. 2015 Mar-Apr. 36 (2):e62-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

48. Nygaard RM, Lacey AM, Lemere A, Dole M, Gayken JR, Lambert Wagner AL, et al. Time Matters in Severe Frostbite: Assessment of Limb/Digit Salvage on the Individual Patient Level. J Burn Care Res. 2017 Jan/Feb. 38 (1):53-59. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

49. Twomey JA, Peltier GL, Zera RT. An open-label study to evaluate the safety and efficacy of tissue plasminogen activator in treatment of severe frostbite. J Trauma. 2005 Dec. 59(6):1350-4; discussion 1354-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

50. Handford C, Buxton P, Russell K, Imray CE, McIntosh SE, Freer L. Frostbite: a practical approach to hospital management. Extrem Physiol Med. 2014. 3:7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

51. Bruen KJ, Ballard JR, Morris SE, Cochran A, Edelman LS, Saffle JR. Reduction of the incidence of amputation in frostbite injury with thrombolytic therapy. Arch Surg. 2007 Jun. 142(6):546-51; discussion 551-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

52. Poole A, Gauthier J. Treatment of severe frostbite with iloprost in northern Canada. CMAJ. 2016 Dec 6. 188 (17-18):1255-1258. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

53. Folio LR, Arkin K, Butler WP. Frostbite in a mountain climber treated with hyperbaric oxygen: case report. Mil Med. 2007 May. 172(5):560-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

54. Kemper TC, de Jong VM, Anema HA, van den Brink A, van Hulst RA. Frostbite of both first digits of the foot treated with delayed hyperbaric oxygen:a case report and review of literature. Undersea Hyperb Med. 2014 Jan-Feb. 41 (1):65-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

55. Poulakidas S, Cologne K, Kowal-Vern A. Treatment of frostbite with subatmospheric pressure therapy. J Burn Care Res. 2008 Nov-Dec. 29(6):1012-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

56. Purkayastha SS, Bhaumik G, Chauhan SK, Banerjee PK, Selvamurthy W. Immediate treatment of frostbite using rapid rewarming in tea decoction followed by combined therapy of pentoxifylline, aspirin & vitamin C. Indian J Med Res. 2002 Jul. 116:29-34. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

57. Lau KN, Park D, Dagum AB, Bui DT. Two for one: salvage of bilateral lower extremities with a single free flap. Ann Plast Surg. 2008 May. 60(5):498-501. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

58. Imanbayev K, Makishev A, Zhagiparov M, McLoone P. Non-Melanoma Skin Cancers at Sites of Previous Frostbite: Case Report and Review. Case Rep Dermatol. 2018 Jan-Apr. 10 (1):17-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

59. [Guideline] McIntosh SE, Freer L, Grissom CK, Auerbach PS, Rodway GW, Cochran A, et al. Wilderness Medical Society Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Frostbite: 2019 Update. Wilderness Environ Med. 2019 Jul 17. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

Bobak Zonnoor , MD, MMM Assistant Professor of Emergency Medicine, SUNY Downstate School of Medicine; Director, ED Observation Unit, Department of Emergency Medicine, Kings County Hospital; Volunteer Assistant Clinical Professor, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine; Clinical Faculty, University of California, Riverside, School of Medicine

Bobak Zonnoor , MD, MMM is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Emergency Physicians, Emergency Medicine Residents' Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Dirk M Elston, MD Professor and Chairman, Department of Dermatology and Dermatologic Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina College of Medicine

Dirk M Elston, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Dermatology

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

David Cheng, MD Associate Professor of Emergency Medicine, Education Director, Associate Emergency Medicine Residency Director, Case Medical Center

David Cheng, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Emergency Physicians, International Society for Mountain Medicine, Council of Residency Directors in Emergency Medicine, American Heart Association, National Association of EMS Physicians, Society for Academic Emergency Medicine, Society of Critical Care Medicine, Wilderness Medical Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

C Crawford Mechem, MD, MS, FACEP Professor, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine; Emergency Medical Services Medical Director, Philadelphia Fire Department

C Crawford Mechem, MD, MS, FACEP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Emergency Physicians, National Association of EMS Physicians, Society for Academic Emergency Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Ramy Yakobi, MD, MBA Medical Director, Department of Emergency Medicine, Beth Israel Medical Center

Ramy Yakobi, MD, MBA is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Emergency Medicine, American College of Emergency Physicians

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Tonya M Thompson, MD, MA Assistant Professor, Departments of Pediatrics and Emergency Medicine, Associate Fellowship Director, Pediatric Emergency Medicine Fellowship, Associate Medical Director, The PULSE Simulation Center, Arkansas Children's Hospital, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences College of Medicine

Tonya M Thompson, MD, MA is a member of the following medical societies: Academic Pediatric Association, American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Emergency Physicians, American Medical Women's Association, Phi Beta Kappa, Southern Society for Pediatric Research

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

H Scott Bjerke, MD, FACS Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Surgery, University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Medicine; Medical Director of Trauma Services, Research Medical Center; Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine

H Scott Bjerke, MD, FACS is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the History of Medicine, American Association for the Surgery of Trauma, American College of Surgeons, Association for Academic Surgery, Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma, Midwest Surgical Association, National Association of EMS Physicians, Pan-Pacific Surgical Association, Royal Society of Medicine, Southwestern Surgical Congress, andWilderness Medical Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Burt Cagir, MD, FACS Assistant Professor of Surgery, State University of New York, Upstate Medical Center; Consulting Staff, Director of Surgical Research, Robert Packer Hospital; Associate Program Director, Department of Surgery, Guthrie Clinic

Burt Cagir, MD, FACS is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Surgeons, American Medical Association, and Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

John Geibel, MD, DSc, MA Vice Chairman, Professor, Department of Surgery, Section of Gastrointestinal Medicine and Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale University School of Medicine; Director of Surgical Research, Department of Surgery, Yale-New Haven Hospital

John Geibel, MD, DSc, MA is a member of the following medical societies: American Gastroenterological Association, American Physiological Society, American Society of Nephrology, Association for Academic Surgery, International Society of Nephrology, New York Academy of Sciences, and Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract

Disclosure: AMGEN Royalty Other

Dawn Hackshaw, MD Consulting Staff, Northwest Pediatrics, Inc

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

David L Morris, MD, PhD Professor, Department of Surgery, St George Hospital, University of New South Wales, Australia

Disclosure: RFA Medical None Director; MRC Biotec None Director

Harold K Simon, MD, MBA Professor of Pediatrics and Emergency Medicine, Associate Division Director of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Director of Research, Division of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta at Egleston

Harold K Simon, MD, MBA is a member of the following medical societies: Ambulatory Pediatric Association, American Academy of Pediatrics, American Pediatric Society, and Sigma Xi

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Senior Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine

Disclosure: eMedicine Salary Employment

Amit Tevar, MD Staff Physician, Department of Surgery, Methodist Hospital of Indianapolis and University of Indiana

Amit Tevar, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Indiana State Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mary L Windle, PharmD Adjunct Associate Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Wayne Wolfram, MD, MPH Associate Professor, Department of Emergency Medicine, Mercy St Vincent Medical Center

Wayne Wolfram, MD, MPH is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Emergency Medicine, American Academy of Pediatrics, and Society for Academic Emergency Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose

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