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Table 1. Stool Characteristics and Determining Their Source

Stool Characteristics	Small Bowel	Large Bowel
Appearance	Watery	Mucoid and/or bloody
Volume	Large	Small
Frequency	Increased	Highly increased
Blood	Possibly positive but never gross blood	Commonly grossly bloody
pH	Possibly < 5.5	>5.5
Reducing substances	Possibly positive	Negative
WBCs	< 5/high power field	Commonly >10/high power field
Serum WBCs	Normal	Possible leukocytosis, bandemia
Organisms	Viral Rotavirus Adenovirus Calicivirus Astrovirus Norovirus	Invasive bacteria Escherichia Coli (enteroinvasive, enterohemorrhagic) Shigella species Salmonella species Campylobacter species Yersinia species Aeromonas species Plesiomonas species
	Enterotoxigenic bacteria E coli Klebsiella Clostridium perfringens Cholera species Vibrio species	Toxic bacteria Clostridium difficile
	Parasites Giardia species Cryptosporidium species	Parasites Entamoeba organisms

Table 2. Organisms and Frequency of Symptoms

Organism	Incubation	Duration	Vomiting	Fever	Abdominal Pain
Rotavirus	1-7 d	4-8 d	Yes	Low	No
Adenovirus	8-10 d	5-12 d	Delayed	Low	No
Norovirus	1-2 d	2 d	Yes	No	No
Astrovirus	1-2 d	4-8 d	+/-	+/-	No
Calicivirus	1-4 d	4-8 d	Yes	+/-	No
Aeromonas species	None	0-2 wk	+/-	+/-	No
Campylobacter species	2-4 d	5-7 d	No	Yes	Yes
C difficile	Variable	Variable	No	Few	Few
C perfringens	Minimal	1 d	Mild	No	Yes
Enterohemorrhagic E coli	1-8 d	3-6 d	No	+/-	Yes
Enterotoxigenic E coli	1-3 d	3-5 d	Yes	Low	Yes
Plesiomonas species	None	0-2 wk	+/-	+/-	+/-
Salmonella species	0-3 d	2-7 d	Yes	Yes	Yes
Shigella species	0-2 d	2-5 d	No	High	Yes
Vibrio species	0-1 d	5-7 d	Yes	No	Yes
Y enterocolitica	None	1-46 d	Yes	Yes	Yes
Giardia species	2 wk	1+ wk	No	No	Yes
Cryptosporidium species	5-21 d	Months	No	Low	Yes
Entamoeba species	5-7 d	1-2+ wk	No	Yes	No

Table 3. Dehydration Severity, Signs, and Symptoms

Hydration	0-5% Dehydration (Mild)	5-10% Dehydration (Moderate)	10% or More (Severe)
General	Well	Restless	Lethargic
Eyes	Normal	Sunken	Very sunken
Tears	Present	Absent	Absent
Mouth	Moist	Dry	Very dry
Thirst	Drinks normally	Thirsty	Drinks poorly
Skin	Pinch retracts immediately	Pinch retracts slowly	Pinch stays folded

Table 4. Common Bacteria and Optimum Culture Mediums

Organism	Detection Method	Microbiologic Characteristics
Aeromonas species	Blood agar	Oxidase-positive flagellated gram-negative bacillus (GNB)
Campylobacter species	Skirrow agar	Rapidly motile curved gram-negative rod (GNR); Campylobacter jejuni 90% and Campylobacter coli 5% of infections
C difficile	Cycloserine-cefoxitin-fructose-egg (CCFE) agar; enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for toxin; latex agglutination (LA) for protein	Anaerobic spore-forming gram-positive rod (GPR); toxin-mediated diarrhea; produces pseudomembranous colitis
C perfringens	None available	Anaerobic spore-forming GPR; toxin-mediated diarrhea
E coli	MacConkey eosin-methylene blue (EMB) or Sorbitol-MacConkey (SM) agar	Lactose-producing GNR
Plesiomonas species	Blood agar	Oxidase-positive GNR
Salmonella species	Blood, MacConkey EMB, xylose-lysine-deoxycholate (XLD), or Hektoen enteric (HE) agar	Nonlactose non–H2S-producing GNR

Table 5. Probiotic Efficacy in Diarrhea

Condition	Patients and Controls	Most-Studied Probiotics	Evidence of Efficacy (- to +++)
Prevention of Daycare Diarrhea	2000	Lactobacillus GG Bifidobacterium lactis Lactobacillus reuteri Lactobacillus casei Bifidobacterium bifidum + Streptococcus thermophilus	+
Prevention of Nosocomial Diarrhea	1000	Lactobacillus GG	++
Prevention of Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhea	2000	Lactobacillus GG Saccharomyces boulardii	+++
Infectious Diarrhea	3500	Lactobacillus GG Saccharomyces boulardii	+++
Persistent Diarrhea	460	Lactobacillus GG	+

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Author

Stefano Guandalini, MD, AGAF Founder and Director Emeritus, Celiac Disease Center, University of Chicago; Former Chief, Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, University of Chicago Medicine; Professor Emeritus, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine

Stefano Guandalini, MD, AGAF is a member of the following medical societies: American Gastroenterological Association, European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, North American Society for the Study of Celiac Disease

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: Imaware.health.

Coauthor(s)

Richard E Frye, MD, PhD Professor of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine at Phoenix; Chief of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Director of Autism and Down Syndrome and Fragile X Programs, Division of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Department of Neurology, Barrow Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children's Hospital

Richard E Frye, MD, PhD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Academy of Pediatrics, Child Neurology Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

M Akram Tamer, MD Professor, Program Director, Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami, Leonard M Miller School of Medicine

M Akram Tamer, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Medical Association, Florida Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Mary L Windle, PharmD Adjunct Associate Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Carmen Cuffari, MD Associate Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Gastroenterology/Nutrition, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine

Carmen Cuffari, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Gastroenterology, American Gastroenterological Association, North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada

Disclosure: Received honoraria from Prometheus Laboratories for speaking and teaching; Received honoraria from Abbott Nutritionals for speaking and teaching. for: Abbott Nutritional, Abbvie, speakers' bureau.

Additional Contributors

Chris A Liacouras, MD Director of Pediatric Endoscopy, Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia; Associate Professor of Pediatrics, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine

Chris A Liacouras, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Gastroenterological Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

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