Infections in the Immunocompromised Host
Updated: Feb 25, 2020
Author: Fernando J Bula-Rudas, MD, FAAP; Chief Editor: Russell W Steele, MD
An immunocompromised host is a patient who does not have the ability to respond normally to an infection because of an impaired or weakened immune system. This inability to fight infection can be caused by a number of conditions, including diseases (eg, diabetes, human immunodeficiency virus [HIV] infection), malnutrition, and drugs.[1]
Congenital conditions
Congenital conditions most commonly affect the fetus and newborn. Classes of congenital conditions include the following:
Genetic syndromes
B-cell defects
Combined B-cell and T-cell defects
T-cell defects
Macrophage, cytokine, and miscellaneous defects
Phagocyte deficiency or dysfunction
Complement deficiencies
Acquired conditions
These conditions may interfere directly with the immune system or may disrupt barrier function. Types of acquired conditions include the following:
Malnutrition
HIV infection
Trauma
Medical conditions
Immunocompromised patients are susceptible to bacterial, fungal, viral, and parasitic infections that healthy immune systems usually overcome. They are also more susceptible to complications from common infections.
B-cell defects predispose patients to frequent sinopulmonary and respiratory tract infections and infections with nonenveloped viruses, parvovirus B19, and rotavirus.
Almost any organism can cause infection in patients with combined B-cell and T-cell defects. These patients often present with failure to thrive, thrush, and Pneumocystis jirovecii infection. Other commonly seen pathogens include Streptococcus pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Legionella pneumophila, Listeria monocytogenes, Nocardia species, Mycobacterium species, fungi, varicella-zoster virus (VZV), herpes simplex virus (HSV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), viruses that cause respiratory tract infections, Toxoplasma species, cryptosporidia, Strongyloides species, and other encapsulated bacteria.
T-cell defects predispose to infections with Candida species, Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex, herpesviruses, and P jirovecii.
Phagocyte deficiency or dysfunction predisposes patients to infections with Staphylococcus aureus, Nocardia species, P aeruginosa, Serratia species, streptococci, other enteric organisms, and Candida, Burkholderia, Aspergillus, and Chromobacterium species.
Complement deficiency is associated with recurrent sinopulmonary infections and invasive infections due to encapsulated bacteria such as S pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Neisseria meningitidis.
Infectious diarrhea, pneumonia, tuberculosis, measles, malaria, salmonellosis, P jirovecii infection, and HIV infection are common causes of death among malnourished infants and children. In immunosuppression due to HIV infection, a myriad of opportunistic infections may occur, particularly as immune function deteriorates in the absence of antiretroviral treatment.
According to guidelines from the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), most immunocompromised patients should be vaccinated. These guidelines are designed for health care professionals who care for patients with compromised immune systems due to HIV infection or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), cancer, solid organ transplantation, stem cell transplantation, sickle cell disease or asplenia, congenital immune deficiencies, chronic inflammatory conditions, cochlear implants, or cerebrospinal fluid leaks.[2, 3]
Specific recommendations include the following:
When possible, vaccines should be administered before planned immunosuppression.
Live vaccines should be administered at least 4 weeks before immunosuppression and should be avoided within 2 weeks of beginning immunosuppression.
Inactivated vaccines should be administered at least 2 weeks before immunosuppression is initiated.
Most immunocompromised patients 6 months of age or older should receive annual influenza vaccination as an injection; these patients should not receive live attenuated influenza vaccine administered as a nasal spray.
Influenza vaccine is unlikely to be of benefit in individuals who are receiving intensive chemotherapy or who have received anti–B-cell antibodies in the preceding 6 months.
Immunocompetent persons who live with immunocompromised patients can safely receive inactivated vaccines.
Individuals who live with immunocompromised patients 6 months of age or older should receive annual influenza vaccination.
Much of the practice of pediatric infectious diseases now focuses on the treatment of the fetus, neonate, infant, child, and adolescent who have infections in the context of immunocompromise.[4] Because of the vast scope of this topic, the interested reader is referred to appropriate reviews for exhaustive treatment of specific immunologic and immune-compromising disorders and infections.[5, 6] Further information is also available in textbooks of pediatric infectious diseases (some of which are devoted exclusively to this topic) as cited in the bibliography.
This review focuses on evaluation of the child with frequent infections (who likely has no immunocompromise), conditions leading to immunocompromise (congenital, acquired, and iatrogenic in broad terms), and the particular infections associated with these conditions.
Most children who have a series of frequent, benign, self-limited, mostly viral infections are examined in the office in the context of parental or familial concern for an underlying immune problem or perception that the child is sickly. The patient often seems to get sick more often than siblings and peers. Nevertheless, most children with frequent infections are immunologically healthy.
Careful questioning and evaluation frequently reveal previous events or problems that predispose the patient to such concerns (eg, the vulnerable child syndrome). Thorough history taking and physical examination, with a review of laboratory and radiographic results (which generally accompany the patient), almost always help in excluding clinically significant immunologic disorders. In rare cases, Munchausen syndrome or Munchausen syndrome by proxy manifests as frequent or obscure infections (or suspicion of such infections). Secondary or acquired immunodeficiency is more common than primary immunodeficiency.
Children who require hospitalization for management of a common infection should raise suspicion of an immunocompromising condition.
For the outpatient with frequent infections, a thorough history should be obtained. In particular, the following should be identified[1] :
More than 10 episodes of acute otitis media in a year
More than 2 episodes of consolidated pneumonia in a year
More than 2 life-threatening infections
Infections with unusual pathogens
Unusual response to usual pathogens
Recurrent autoimmune phenomena
Exacerbation of chronic disorders by infections
Infections with vaccine pathogens despite adequate vaccination
Family history of recurrent infections or immunodeficiency
Chronic eczema, diarrhea, or thrush
Developmental delay
Growth problems
A complete history should be obtained for all patients, with attention to the following:
Travel history
Dietary and medication history (including nonprescription medications and supplements)
Animal, insect, and tick exposure
Other exposures or risk factors
A thorough physical examination should be performed for the outpatient with frequent infections, with particular attention to the following:
Growth chart
Developmental milestones
Evaluation for dysmorphology
Evidence of normal physiology and functioning between episodes of fever
Thorough physical examination often provides clues to the presence and etiology of infectious complications of immunocompromise.
Congenital conditions most commonly affect the fetus and newborn.
Syndromes
Partial albinism with immunodeficiency (Griscelli syndrome)[7]
Hemorrhagic hereditary telangiectasia (Osler-Weber-Rendu disease)[8]
Immunodeficiency-centromeric instability-facial anomalies (ICF) syndrome
Kabuki syndrome
Partial albinism, immunodeficiency, and progressive white matter disease (PAID) syndrome
Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy syndrome type 1
Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome[9]
Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome type 2
CHARGE (coloboma, heart defect, atresia choanae, retarded growth and development, genital hypoplasia, ear anomalies/deafness) syndrome[10]
Other dysmorphology or immunodeficiency syndromes
Stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) mutation[11]
B-cell defects[12]
Antibody deficiency with transcobalamin II deficiency
Antibody deficiency with normal or high immunoglobulin (Ig) levels
Common variable immunodeficiency
GATA2 deficiency[13]
IgG heavy-chain deletion
IgG subclass deficiency
Kappa-chain deficiency
Organic cation transporter 2 deficiency[14]
Selective IgA deficiency
Selective IgM deficiency
Selective antipolysaccharide antibody deficiency
Transient hypogammaglobulinemia of infancy or early childhood[15]
Thymoma with agammaglobulinemia
X-linked (Bruton) agammaglobulinemia
X-linked hyper-IgM syndrome
X-linked hypogammaglobulinemia with growth hormone deficiency[15]
Combined B-cell and T-cell defects
Adenosine deaminase deficiency
Artemis deficiency
Ataxia-telangiectasia syndrome
Bare lymphocyte syndrome (major histocompatability complex class I/II deficiency)
Caspase-8 mutations[16]
DOCK8 mutations[17]
Interleukin (IL)-2R alpha or gamma deficiency
Intestinal lymphangiectasia
Janus kinase 3 (JAK3) deficiency[18]
Nuclear factor-kappaB essential modifier (NEMO) deficiency[19]
Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome[20]
Nijmegen breakage syndrome[21]
Omenn syndrome
Purine nucleoside phosphorylase deficiency
Recombination activation gene (RAG) 1 or 2 deficiency
Reticular dysgenesis
Swiss-type severe combined immunodeficiency
X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome
X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency
Zeta-associated protein of 70 kDa (ZAP-70) tyrosine kinase deficiency
T-cell defects
Biotin-dependent multiple carboxylase deficiency
Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis
DiGeorge (velocardiofacial) syndrome[22]
Fas defect
Nezelof syndrome
Short-limbed dwarfism or cartilage-hair hypoplasia
T-cell receptor deficiency
Macrophage, cytokine, and miscellaneous defects
Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial diseases (MSMD)
Interferon-gamma deficiency[23]
Interferon-gamma receptor I or II deficiency[24]
IL-12 deficiency
IL-12 receptor deficiency
Signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 1 (STAT1) mutations[18, 25]
NEMO deficiency[19]
CYBB deficiency
Interferon regulatory factor 8 mutations[26]
IL-1 receptor–associated kinase 4 (IRAK4) deficiency[27]
MYD88 deficiency[27]
Toll-like receptor 5 mutations
Apolipoprotein L-I deficiency
UNC-93B deficiency
Toll-like receptor 3 mutations[28]
TRIF and TRAF3 mutations
Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 4G/4G promoter genotype[29]
Anti–interferon-gamma antibodies
IL-18 polymorphisms
RANTES promoter gene polymorphisms[30]
Deficiency of chemokine receptor CCR5[31, 32]
Toll-like receptor 4 mutations
IL-8 RA (chemokine CXC motif receptor 1 [CXCR1]) mutations
CXCR4 mutations (WHIM [warts, hypogammaglobulinemia, immunodeficiency, myelokathexis] syndrome)[33]
STAT5 mutations[18, 34]
NOD2 gene polymorphisms
IL-6 polymorphisms[35]
Activating killer immunoglobulinlike receptor gene polymorphisms
Dectin-1 deficiency[36]
CARD9 mutations[36]
Polymorphisms in cytokine-inducible SRC homology 2 domain protein (CISH)
Polymorphisms in Mal/TIRAP and IL-10
Autoantibodies against IL-6[37]
Polymorphisms in the IL-8 promoter gene[38]
IL-12 receptor deficiency[39]
Macrophage migration inhibitory factor deficiency
IL-17 defects[40, 41]
Toll-like receptor 9 polymorphisms[42]
Phagocyte deficiency or dysfunction
Chediak-Higashi syndrome
Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD)
Chronic idiopathic neutropenia
Cyclic neutropenia
Glycogen storage disease 1b
Hyper-IgE/recurrent infection (Job) syndrome (Janus kinase protein tyrosine kinase 2 [Tyk2], STAT3, and STAT1 mutations)[18, 25, 43, 44]
Kostmann syndrome
Leukocyte adhesion deficiency (including CD11 or CD18 deficiency)
Myeloperoxidase deficiency
Neutrophil actin dysfunction
Papillon-Lefèvre syndrome
Specific granule deficiency
Shwachman-Diamond syndrome
Complement deficiencies[45]
Mannose-binding lectin (Mannan-binding protein) deficiency[46, 47]
Deficiencies of C1q, C1r, C1rs, C4, C2, C3, or C5-9
Deficiencies of factor D, factor P, factor I, factor H, or properdin
Ficolin-3 (H-ficolin) deficiency[48]
Other conditions
Asplenia[49]
Ciliary dyskinesia, Kartagener syndrome, and other disorders
Galactosemia and other metabolic conditions
Lymphedema (congenital)
Trisomy 21 and other genetic disorders
Other anatomic defects (eg, midline dermal sinus, Mondini defect of the inner ear, fistulas, cysts, duplications, meningeal defects, iron overload, decreased sensation)
Sickle cell disease
Acquired conditions may interfere directly with the immune system or may disrupt barrier function.
Malnutrition
HIV infection: Although human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is a considerable cause of immunodeficiency worldwide, immunocompromise is most likely to result from other common chronic problems such as asthma, diabetes, malnutrition, and cancer. Adequate viral control in persons living with HIV lowers the risk of acquiring opportunistic infections.
Trauma
Burns
Lacerations and abrasions
Medical conditions
Collagen vascular disorders
Gastrointestinal (GI) tract disorders
Hematologic or oncologic conditions
Hepatic disorders
Metabolic disorders
Pregnancy
Pulmonary disorders, particularly atopy, asthma,[50] and cystic fibrosis (CF)
Renal disorders
Skin and mucous membrane conditions
Viral infections (eg, cytomegalovirus [CMV] infection,[51] measles)
Other anatomic or physiologic problems (eg, fistulas, cysts, obstructions, iron overload, decreased sensation)
Acquired asplenia[45]
Acquired lymphedema
Other conditions that injure or bypass barrier function
Parasitic infections
Animal and insect bites or scratches
Iatrogenic or self-inflicted conditions may directly interfere with the immune system or may disrupt barrier function.
Use of certain drugs or therapies (eg, radiation therapy) may interfere with normal flora, decrease gastric acidity and ciliary motility, and also may be directly immunomodulating.[52]
Trauma
Injections (eg, insulin injections, intravenous [IV] drug use, others)
Operative and other incisions
Vascular, osseous, tracheal, gastric, bladder, joint, peritoneal, wound, or ventricular access or drainage devices
Internal foreign bodies
Major surgery[53]
Treatment
Therapies for leukemia or lymphoma
Bone marrow or stem-cell transplantation
Solid organ transplantation[54]
Therapy for autoimmune or inflammatory disorders
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha inhibitors[55]
Monoclonal antibodies and related small molecules
Transfusion (which may lead to iron overload)
Table. Differential Diagnoses (Open Table in a new window)
Actinomycosis Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Acute Myelocytic Leukemia Adrenal Carcinoma Afebrile Pneumonia Syndrome Agammaglobulinemia Amebiasis Amebic Meningoencephalitis Ancylostoma Infection Angioedema Animal Bites Appendicitis Arthritis, Septic Ascariasis Aspergillosis Aspiration Syndromes Asplenia Asthma Astrocytoma Atypical Mycobacterial Infection Autoimmune Chronic Active Hepatitis Autoimmune and Chronic Benign Neutropenia B-Cell and T-Cell Combined Disorders Babesiosis Bacteremia Bacterial Tracheitis Bancroftian Filariasis |
Biliary Atresia Biotinidase Deficiency Blastomycosis Bone Marrow Transplantation Bone Marrow Transplantation, Long-Term Effects Botulism Bronchiectasis Bronchiolitis Bronchitis, Acute and Chronic Brucellosis Bruton Agammaglobulinemia Burns, Chemical Burns, Electrical Burns, Thermal Campylobacter Infections Candidiasis Carcinoid Tumor Cardiac Tumors Cartilage-Hair Hypoplasia Catscratch Disease Central Venous Access Cervicitis Chlamydial Infections Cholecystitis Cholera Cholesteatoma Chorioretinitis |
Chronic Granulomatous Disease Clear Cell Sarcoma of the Kidney Coccidioidomycosis Coelenterate Envenomation Cold Agglutinin Disease Colitis Colorectal Tumors Common Variable Immunodeficiency Complement Deficiency Complement Receptor Deficiency Congenital Pneumonia Contact Dermatitis Craniopharyngioma Croup Cryptosporidiosis Cutaneous Larva Migrans Cyclosporiasis Cystic Adenomatoid Malformation Cystic Fibrosis Cystic Hygroma Cysticercosis Cytomegalovirus Infection Delayed-type Hypersensitivity Dengue Dental Abscess Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 |
Diarrhea Dientamoeba Fragilis Infection DiGeorge Syndrome Diphtheria Diphyllobothrium Latum Infection Dirofilariasis Down Syndrome Dracunculiasis Echinococcosis Echovirus Ehrlichiosis Empyema Endocarditis, Bacterial Endocarditis, Fungal Endometritis Enterobiasis Enterococcal Infection Enteroviral Infection Ependymoma Epidermolysis Bullosa Epiglottitis Escherichia Coli Infections Esophagitis Ewing Sarcoma and Primitive Neuroectodermal Tumors Failure to Thrive Fascioliasis Filariasis |
Frostbite Fungal Infections in Preterm Infants Galactose-1-Phosphate Uridyltransferase Deficiency (Galactosemia) Gastroenteritis Gastrointestinal Neoplasms Giardiasis Gnathostomiasis Gonadoblastoma Gonorrhea Gorlin Syndrome Graft Versus Host Disease Glycogen-Storage Disease Type I Haemophilus Influenzae Infection Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome Heart Transplantation Helicobacter Pylori Infection Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation Hemochromatosis, NeonatalHemorrhagic Fever With Renal Failure Syndrome Hemosiderosis Hepatitis A Hepatitis B Hepatitis C Hepatoblastoma Hepatocellular Carcinoma Hepatorenal Syndrome Herpes Simplex Virus Infection |
Herpesvirus 6 Infection Heterotaxy, Asplenia Histiocytosis Histoplasmosis Hodgkin Disease Hookworm Infection Hospital-Acquired Infections Human Bites Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Human Metapneumovirus Hymenolepiasis Hypereosinophilic Syndrome Hyperimmunoglobulinemia E (Job) Syndrome IgA and IgG Subclass Deficiencies Immunology of Transplant Rejection ImmunosuppressionImmunotherapeutic Targeting Impetigo Infections After Bone Marrow Transplantation Infections of the Lung, Pleura and Mediastinum: Surgical Perspective Influenza Intestinal Protozoal Diseases Intestinal Transplantation Intestinal and Multivisceral Transplantation Isosporiasis Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis Kidney Transplantation |
Kostmann Disease Late Effects of Childhood Cancer and Treatment Legionella Infection Leishmaniasis Leprosy Leptospirosis Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency Li-Fraumeni Syndrome Liposarcoma Listeria Infection Liver Transplantation Liver Tumors Lung Transplantation Lyme Disease Lymphadenitis Lymphangitis Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus Lymphohistiocytosis Lymphoproliferative Disorders Malaria Malnutrition Marasmus Mastoiditis Maternal Chorioamnionitis Measles Medulloblastoma |
Meningitis, Aseptic Meningitis, Bacterial Meningococcal Infections Mixed Connective Tissue Disease Molluscum Contagiosum Mononucleosis and Epstein-Barr Virus Infection Mucopolysaccharidosis Type II Mucormycosis Mumps Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy Mycoplasma Infections Myelodysplastic Syndrome Myeloperoxidase Deficiency Myocarditis, Viral Naegleria Nasopharyngeal Cancer Necrotizing Enterocolitis Neonatal Lupus and Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus in Children Neonatal Sepsis Nephrotic Syndrome Neuroblastoma Neurocysticercosis Nevoid Basal Cell Carcinoma Syndrome Nocardiosis Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Nonrhabdomyosarcoma Soft Tissue Sarcomas Omenn Syndrome |
Omphalitis Oncologic Emergencies Osteomyelitis Osteosarcoma Otitis Externa Otitis Media Paragonimiasis Parainfluenza Virus Infections Parvovirus B19 Infection Passive Smoking and Lung Disease Pediculosis (Lice) Perianal and Perirectal Abscesses Pericarditis, Bacterial Pericarditis, Viral Peritonsillar Abscess Pertussis Pharyngitis Pheochromocytoma Plague Pleural Effusion Pneumococcal Bacteremia Pneumococcal Infections Pneumonia Poliomyelitis Posttransplant Lymphoproliferative Disease Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia Pseudomonas Infection |
Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase Deficiency Pyelonephritis Q Fever Rabies Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection Retinoblastoma Retropharyngeal Abscess Rhabdoid Tumor of the Kidney Rhabdomyosarcoma Rheumatic Fever Rhinovirus Infection Rickettsial Infection Right Middle Lobe Syndrome Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever Rubella Salmonella Infection Sarcoidosis Scabies Schistosomiasis Scrub Typhus Seminoma Sepsis Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Shigella Infection Shwachman-Diamond Syndrome Sickle Cell Anemia Sinusitis |
Sjogren Syndrome Split Liver Transplantation Sporotrichosis Staphylococcus Aureus Infection Streptococcal Infection, Group A Strongyloidiasis Syphilis Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Systemic Sclerosis T-Cell Disorders Taenia Infection Teratomas and Other Germ Cell Tumors Tetanus Thrush Thymoma Tinea Versicolor Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxocariasis Toxoplasmosis Transient Hypogammaglobulinemia of Infancy Trichinosis Trichomoniasis Trypanosomiasis Tuberculosis Tularemia Tumor Lysis Syndrome |
Urinary Tract Infection Varicella Velocardiofacial Syndrome Vesicoureteral Reflux VIPoma Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers Visceral Larva Migrans Voiding Dysfunction WAGR Syndrome Weber-Christian Disease Wegener Granulomatosis Whipworm White Blood Cell Function Wilms Tumor Wilson Disease Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome X-linked Immunodeficiency With Hyper IgM Xenotransplantation Yellow Fever Yersinia Enterocolitica Infection Zoster |
In general, infectious complications can be seen with almost any immune-compromising condition. The following discussion includes infections most frequently associated with the immunocompromising conditions enumerated above, with particular attention to the distinctive infections for each condition. Refer to the reviews of the specific infections for further details.
The fetal and neonatal immune systems are not fully developed,[56] and the aggressive measures frequently needed to care for young patients may predispose them to various infections with the following agents:
Streptococcus agalactiae (group B streptococcus, or GBS), Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Chlamydia trachomatis, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Ureaplasma urealyticum, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Chryseobacterium meningosepticum, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, viridans streptococci, other gram-negative bacilli, other gram-positive organisms, Treponema pallidum, lactobacilli, and anaerobes
Herpes simplex virus (HSV), HIV, cytomegalovirus (CMV), and varicella zoster virus (VZV)
Candida albicans[57] and other fungi
Pneumocystis jirovecii
Hemoglobinopathies predispose patients to infections that are also seen in those with congenital or acquired asplenia. Some infectious agents associated with hemoglobinopathies include encapsulated organisms such as Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Neisseria species. Other organisms include Salmonella species, E coli, K pneumoniae, and Edwardsiella species.
Asplenia (congenital or acquired) predisposes patients to parasitic infections, such as malaria and babesiosis, and also to infections by encapsulated organisms, such as S pneumoniae, H influenzae, E coli, K pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Capnocytophaga canimorsus.[49]
Iron overload increases the susceptibility of patients to Yersinia, Vibrio, and Capnocytophaga infections.
Leukemia and lymphoma predispose patients to infections with S aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, enteric organisms, fungi,[58] S pneumoniae, H influenzae, mycobacteria, and viruses.
Transfusions may increase the susceptibility of patients to infections caused by Babesia, Plasmodium,[59] and Trypanosoma species.
B-cell defects may predispose patients to frequent sinopulmonary and respiratory tract infections. Common causes of infections are nonenveloped viruses, parvovirus B19, and rotavirus. Patients are also at risk for infections with S pneumoniae, H influenzae, S aureus, P aeruginosa, M pneumoniae, and enteric pathogens such as Giardia lamblia and Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter species. Specific B-cell defects and their associated pathogens and conditions are listed below[12] :
Antibody deficiency with transcobalamin II deficiency: S aureus infection, failure to thrive, severe persistent diarrhea
Antibody deficiency with normal or high immunoglobulin (Ig) levels: Recurrent sinopulmonary infections, recurrent pneumococcal septicemia
Common variable immunodeficiency: Recurrent respiratory tract infections; infections with Giardia, Salmonella, or Campylobacter species; infections with Cryptosporidium parvum and P jirovecii; recurrent enteroviral infections
IgG subclass deficiency: Infections with S pneumoniae, H influenzae, and other encapsulated bacteria; severe pandemic 2009 influenza A H1N1 in IgG2 subclass deficiency[60]
Organic cation transporter 2 deficiency: Recurrent respiratory tract infections
Selective IgA deficiency: Recurrent sinopulmonary viral and bacterial GI infections; more common with associated IgG2 subclass deficiency
Selective IgM deficiency
Selective antipolysaccharide antibody deficiency: Infections with encapsulated organisms, especially pneumococcus
Transient hypogammaglobulinemia of infancy/early childhood: Recurrent respiratory tract infections
Thymoma with agammaglobulinemia: Sinusitis and respiratory tract infections
X-linked (Bruton) agammaglobulinemia: Sinopulmonary, pneumococcal, and enteroviral (nonenveloped) infections (especially with echovirus); infections with S aureus, G lamblia, P jirovecii, and rotavirus
X-linked hyper-IgM syndrome: Recurrent abscesses, oral ulcers, perirectal abscesses, infections with P jirovecii, mycobacterial infections, infections with Cryptococcus and Salmonella species; enteric infections with Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia, and Cryptosporidium species; CMV and adenovirus infections
X-linked hypogammaglobulinemia with growth hormone deficiency
Almost any organism can cause infection in patients with combined B-cell and T-cell defects. These patients often present with failure to thrive, thrush, and P jirovecii infection. Other commonly seen pathogens include S pneumoniae, P aeruginosa, Legionella pneumophila, L monocytogenes, Nocardia species, Mycobacterium species, fungi, VZV, HSV, CMV, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), viruses that cause recurrent respiratory tract infections,[61] Toxoplasma species, cryptosporidia, Strongyloides species, and encapsulated bacteria. Types of combined B-cell and T-cell defects and their associated conditions and pathogens include the following:
Adenosine deaminase deficiency
Artemis deficiency
Ataxia-telangiectasia syndrome: Severe sinopulmonary infections and bronchiectasis
Bare lymphocyte syndrome (major histocompatability complex class I/II deficiency): Overwhelming viral infection
Caspase-8 mutations: Mucocutaneous HSV infection
DOCK8 mutations: Recurrent sinopulmonary infections, S aureus infection, severe HSV or VZV infection, severe molluscum contagiosum, and human papillomavirus (HPV) infection[17]
IL-2R alpha/gamma deficiency
Intestinal lymphangiectasia: Encapsulated organisms
Janus kinase 3 (JAK3) deficiency
Nuclear factor-kappaB essential modifier (NEMO) deficiency: Pyogenic infections with bacteria, mycobacteria, herpesviruses, fungi
Nijmegen breakage syndrome: Recurrent pyogenic infections
Omenn syndrome
Purine nucleoside phosphorylase deficiency
RAG1 or RAG2 deficiency: Granulomas in skin,[62] mucous membranes, and internal organs; EBV-associated lymphoma; overwhelming viral infections
Reticular dysgenesis: Overwhelming gram-negative infection
Swiss-type severe combined immunodeficiency
T-cell receptor deficiency
Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome: Infections with S pneumoniae, H influenzae, P jiroveci, and Candida species; CMV, HSV, and EBV infections
X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome: EBV infection
X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency
ZAP-70 tyrosine kinase deficiency
T-cell defects predispose to infections with Candida, Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex, herpesviruses, and P jiroveci. Specific T-cell defects and their associated conditions and pathogens are as follows:
Biotin-dependent multiple carboxylase deficiency
Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis: Candida organisms
DiGeorge (velocardiofacial) syndrome: Recurrent chronic S pneumoniae, Candida species, and P jirovecii infections; chronic diarrhea; CMV and HSV infections
Fas defect: EBV, mycobacteria
Nezelof syndrome: Herpesviruses, mycobacteria
Short-limbed dwarfism or cartilage-hair hypoplasia: Enteric viruses
Macrophage, cytokine, and miscellaneous defects are associated with mycobacterial infections and infections with Salmonella and Listeria species. Specific defects and their associated conditions and pathogens are as follows:
Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial diseases (MSMD): mycobacterial infections; Salmonella, Histoplasma, Listeria, Legionella, HSV,[63] VZV, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), human herpesvirus (HHV)-8, and CMV infections
Interferon-gamma deficiency: Some viral infections, Cryptosporidia
Interferon-gamma receptor I or II deficiency: Some viral infections, histoplasmosis, refractory disseminated coccidioidomycosis, and mycobacteriosis[64]
Interleukin (IL)-12 deficiency: Infections with intracellular organisms and paracoccidioidomycosis, pyogenic bacterial infections, mycobacterial infections
IL-12 receptor deficiency: Recurrent leishmaniasis[65] ; mycobacterial osteomyelitis is typical; disseminated Mycobacterium avium infection[66] ; Klebsiella infections (receptor beta-1 deficiency)[67]
STAT1 mutations: Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis[68]
NEMO
CYBB
Interferon regulatory factor 8 mutations
IL-1 receptor–associated kinase 4 (IRAK4) deficiency: S aureus, S pneumoniae, S agalactiae, Shigella,[69] P aeruginosa infections[27, 70]
MYD88 deficiency: S pneumoniae, S aureus, P aeruginosa infections[27, 70]
Toll-like receptor 5 mutations: Legionella[70]
Apolipoprotein L-I deficiency: Trypanosoma evansi infection[71]
UNC-93B deficiency: HSV encephalitis[72]
Toll-like receptor 3 mutations: HSV encephalitis[73]
TRIF and TRAF3 mutations: HSV encephalitis
Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 4G/4G promoter genotype: Delayed healing following otitis media with increased risk of recurrence[29]
Anti–interferon-gamma antibodies: Nontuberculous Mycobacteria infection[74]
IL-18 polymorphisms: Severe RSV infection[75]
RANTES promoter gene polymorphisms: Severe RSV infection; urinary tract infections[76]
Deficiency of chemokine receptor CCR5: Severe flaviviral infections, particularly with West Nile virus; tick-borne encephalitis[77]
Toll-like receptor 4 mutations: Severe RSV infection; neonatal sepsis; Aspergillus infection after stem-cell transplantation[41] ; infection with CMV, parainfluenza virus, and respiratory viruses; meningococcal disease; symptomatic neurocysticercosis[78, 79]
IL-8 RA (CXCR1) mutations: Pyelonephritis
CXCR4 mutations (WHIM [warts, hypogammaglobulinemia, immunodeficiency, myelokathexis] syndrome): HPV infections
STAT5 mutations: Severe VZV infections
NOD2 gene polymorphisms: Tuberculosis in African American patients[80]
IL-6 polymorphisms: Neonatal infections in preterm infants,[81] severe RSV and rhinovirus infections[82]
Activating killer immunoglobulinlike receptor gene polymorphisms: CMV infection after stem-cell transplantation,[83] HIV and hepatitis C virus infections
Cytokine polymorphisms have been associated with severe Chlamydia infections and tubal factor infertility[84]
Dectin-1 deficiency: Mucocutaneous candidiasis,[85] Trichophyton[84] and Aspergillus infections[86]
CARD9 mutations: Fungal infections[87]
Polymorphisms in cytokine-inducible SRC homology 2 domain protein (CISH): Bacteremia, tuberculosis, severe malaria
Polymorphisms in Mal/TIRAP and IL-10: Non-meningitic Haemophilus influenzae and Hib epiglottitis, respectively[88]
Autoantibodies against IL-6: Recurrent staphylococcal infections[37, 74]
Polymorphisms in the IL-8 promoter gene: Recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection[38]
IL-12 receptor deficiency: Disseminated coccidioidomycosis[39, 89]
Macrophage migration inhibitory factor deficiency: Klebsiella pneumoniae sepsis[90]
IL-17 defects: Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis[40, 41]
Toll-like receptor 9 polymorphisms: Bacterial meningitis[42]
Autoimmune and inflammatory disorders predispose patients to infections with P jirovecii and Candida, Aspergillus, and Mucor species. Congenital or acquired lymphedema increases the susceptibility of patients to Streptococcus pyogenes infections.
Midline dermal sinuses, Mondini defects of the inner ear, and meningeal defects predispose patients to recurrent meningitis.
Disorders of ciliary function predispose patients to frequent sinopulmonary and other respiratory tract infections.[91] Geosmithia argillacea is a mold of significance for those with cystic fibrosis.[92]
Decreased sensation can contribute to recurrent skin and soft tissue infections.
Trisomy 21 and other genetic disorders are linked to otitis media and upper respiratory tract infections, as well as to infections with Candida organisms. Hemorrhagic hereditary telangiectasia (Osler-Weber-Rendu disease) predisposes patients to brain abscesses and S aureus infections. Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome increases the susceptibility of patients to recurrent respiratory tract infections, apparently because of deficient polysaccharide antibody responses.
CHARGE (coloboma, heart defect, atresia choanae, retarded growth and development, genital hypoplasia, ear anomalies/deafness) syndrome may have a presentation similar to that of severe combined immunodeficiency.[10]
Phagocyte deficiency[93] or dysfunction predisposes patients to infections with S aureus, Nocardia species, P aeruginosa, Serratia species, streptococci, other enteric organisms, Candida, Burkholderia, Aspergillus, and Chromobacterium species. Immunocompromising conditions and associated pathogens and infections are as follows:
Chediak-Higashi syndrome: Infections with S aureus and streptococci, recurrent skin and mucosal infections
Chronic granulomatous disease: Infections with primarily catalase-positive organisms, including S aureus, Serratia marcescens, Burkholderia cepacia, Granulibacter bethesdensis,[94] Candida species,[95] Nocardia species, Chromobacterium species, G argillacea,[96, 97] and Aspergillus nidulans[98] and other Aspergillus species[99, 100]
Chronic idiopathic neutropenia:Helicobacter pylori and CMV infections
Cyclic neutropenia: Gingivostomatitis, perirectal abscesses, recurrent fever of unknown origin
Glycogen storage disease 1b: Recurrent skin and soft tissue infections
Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor receptor mutation
Hyper-IgE/recurrent infection (Job) syndrome: S aureus infections, recurrent staphylococcal furuncles; infections with streptococci or Candida or Aspergillus species
Kostmann syndrome: Infections with S agalactiae, S aureus, E coli, P aeruginosa, and fungi
Leukocyte adhesion deficiency (including CD11/CD18 deficiency): Recurrent necrotic skin and soft-tissue infections; poor wound healing; delayed separation of the umbilicus; omphalitis; gingivitis; periodontal disease; infections with P aeruginosa, S aureus, E coli, B cepacia, Serratia species, Klebsiella species, Candida species, Aspergillus species, and Fusarium solani[101]
Leukocyte glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency: Toxoplasmosis
Myeloperoxidase deficiency: Disseminated candidiasis
Neutrophil actin dysfunction: Recurrent skin infections with S aureus and Candida infections
Papillon-Lefèvre syndrome: Herpesvirus infections, periodontal infection, pyogenic liver abscess
Specific granule deficiency: Infection with S aureus, P aeruginosa, streptococci
Shwachman-Diamond syndrome: P aeruginosa infection
Complement deficiencies and their associated conditions and infections are as follows[45] :
Mannose-binding lectin (Mannan-binding protein) deficiency[70] : Infections with Cryptosporidia[102] or Burkholderia species, meningococcal infections,[103] frequent viral respiratory tract infections in infancy and childhood, invasive aspergillosis in immunocompromised patients,[104] Bancroftian filariasis, neonatal gram-negative sepsis,[105] schistosomiasis[106, 107]
Deficiency of C1q, C1r, C1rs, C4, C2, C3, or C5-9: Recurrent sinopulmonary infections; infections with S pneumoniae, H influenzae, and Neisseria species; chronic meningococcemia[108]
Deficiency of factor D, factor P, factor I, factor H, or properdin: Meningococcal infections
Ficolin-3 (H-ficolin) deficiency: Recurrent infections, bronchiectasis,[48] neonatal gram-positive sepsis
Malnutrition is a significant condition that leads to immunocompromise and reduces the ability of those affected to manage infections. Infectious processes that cause diarrhea, pneumonia, tuberculosis, measles, malaria, salmonellosis, and P jirovecii infection are common causes of death among malnourished infants and children.
Galactosemia predisposes patients to infections with E coli.
In immunosuppression due to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection a myriad of infections occur, particularly as the immune function deteriorates in patients without antiretroviral treatment. Conditions and organisms related to HIV infection are as follows:
Infections with S pneumoniae, S aureus,[109] M tuberculosis,[110] M avium-intracellulare complex, and other mycobacteria; infections with P aeruginosa and Salmonella[111] and Bartonella species; syphilis; infections with Nocardia species, Rhodococcus equi,[112] Tsukamurella species, and other gram-positive and gram-negative organisms, including anaerobes
Hepatitis C; CMV, VZV, HSV, HPV, EBV, and JC virus infections; measles
Tinea and infections with Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplasma capsulatum, Coccidioides immitis, Candida species, and Blastomyces dermatitidis
Infections with Toxoplasma gondii, P jirovecii, C parvum, Cyclospora cayetanensis, and Isospora belli; amebiasis; scabies; leishmaniasis; microsporidiosis; and other protozoal infections[112]
Any break in the barrier function of the skin and other epithelium predisposes to wound infections and complications, such as tetanus; wound botulism; P aeruginosa infection; and infection with staphylococci, streptococci, gram-negative bacilli, and Mycobacterium marinum.
The following medical conditions lead to infectious complications with the agents listed below:
Collagen vascular complications: S aureus, P aeruginosa, Listeria species, Serratia species, Nocardia species, Candida species, Aspergillus species, Cryptococcus species, Mucor species, P jiroveci, diphtheroids, streptococci, Strongyloides species, CMV, VZV, polyomaviruses[113]
Gastrointestinal (GI) tract complications: Enteric organisms, Leuconostoc species, Pediococcus species
Hematologic or oncologic complications:
Coagulase-negative staphylococci; viridans streptococci; S aureus, P aeruginosa, S pneumoniae, S pyogenes, and Aeromonas species; mycobacteria; other gram-positive and gram-negative organisms
Candida, Aspergillus, Mucor, Rhizopus, Fusarium, Pseudallescheria, Alternaria, Scedosporium, and Trichosporon species[114, 115]
CMV, HSV, VZV, and community respiratory viruses
P jirovecii, Strongyloides species, and Toxoplasma species
Hepatic complications: Enteric organisms; enterococci; streptococci; enteric anaerobic bacteria; S aureus, P aeruginosa, and Aeromonas species; Vibrio vulnificans
Metabolic complications: S aureus infection, candidiasis, mucormycosis
Pregnancy complications: S agalactiae (GBS), Candida species, Listeria species, hepatitis E virus
Pulmonary complications:
Asthma predisposes patients to invasive pneumococcal infections.
Asthma and atopy predispose to viral infections (rhinovirus).[50]
Cystic fibrosis (CF) predisposes to infection with S aureus, H influenzae, P aeruginosa (mucoid in CF), S marcescens, B cepacia, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, mycobacteria, and fungi.
Exposure to cigarette smoke predisposes patients to meningococcal carriage and infection, infection with nontuberculous mycobacteria, and respiratory tract infections.
Renal complications: S aureus, S pneumoniae, E coli, enterococci, viridans streptococci
Skin and mucous membrane complications increase the susceptibility of patients to infections with S aureus, S pyogenes, corynebacteria, and other pathogens. Injections predispose to skin and soft tissue infections. Contamination while obtaining intravenous (IV) access may lead to intravascular infections. Wound infections may complicate incisions and other breaks in the skin. Intravascular or drainage devices predispose patients to infections with coagulase-negative staphylococci, S aureus, viridans streptococci, enteric organisms, Corynebacterium species, Bacillus species, Malassezia furfur, Acinetobacter species, P aeruginosa, Candida species, Gemella species, and mycobacteria.
Internal foreign bodies predispose to infections with coagulase-negative staphylococci; diphtheroids; corynebacteria; and Leuconostoc, Tsukamurella, and Pediococcus species.
Human, animal, and insect bites or scratches may transmit systemic diseases, such as tick- and arthropod-borne infections, or may become complicated by infections with Pasteurella multocida, C canimorsus, Bartonella species, S aureus, S pyogenes, Eikenella corrodens, gram-negative bacilli, anaerobes, and rabies virus.[116]
Pathogens that cause infections in burn wounds vary according to the body tissue and location and the hospital environment. Pathogens that have been implicated in burn wound infections include the following:
Drugs that interfere with the normal flora may predispose patients to candidiasis and Clostridioides difficile infection.
Drugs that decrease gastric acidity predispose to infections with Salmonella species and Vibrio cholerae, other enteric infections, and community-acquired pneumonia.[102]
Other treatments and medications may interfere directly with immune function. For example, neutropenic patients are particularly at risk for infections with bacteria such as E coli, K pneumoniae, Enterobacter species, Citrobacter species, P aeruginosa, S aureus, Clostridium septicum, coagulase-negative staphylococci, streptococci, enterococci, anaerobes, and a variety of yeasts and fungi (especially Candida and Aspergillus).[117]
Corticosteroid therapy predisposes patients to infections with many organisms, including S aureus, S pneumoniae, Legionella species, Listeria species, P jirovecii, Nocardia species, Strongyloides species, and VZV. Inhaled corticosteroid therapy increases the susceptibility of patients to thrush and community-acquired pneumonia.[102]
Inhibitors of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) predispose to tuberculosis,[55] atypical mycobacterial infections, HSV encephalitis and infections,[118] histoplasmosis,[119] Listeria infection,[120] and severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria.[121]
Other monoclonal antibodies and related small molecules have been associated with numerous infections.[122] For example, therapy with eculizumab, a C5 inhibitor, is associated with invasive meningococcal infection. Similarly, treatment with natalizumab (for multiple sclerosis) is associated with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy.[123, 124] Treatment with infliximab has been associated with disseminated cutaneous VZV infection.[121, 125]
Bone marrow or stem cell transplant predisposes to infections with multiple organisms.[126] The pre-engraftment period poses the highest risk of bacterial bloodstream infections.[1] Among the pathogens that have caused infections after bone marrow or stem cell transplant are the following:
Gram-positive organisms from the skin or GI tract: coagulase-negative staphylococci, streptococci, S aureus, C difficile
Gram-negative enteric rods translocating from the GI tract
Candida, Aspergillus,[127] and Fusarium species; fungi that cause zygomycosis; other molds,[128] such as Pseudallescheria species[129, 130, 131]
P jirovecii, T gondii, Mycobacterium species
Respiratory[132] and enteric viruses, CMV, VZV, HSV, EBV, HHV 6 or 7[133] , parvovirus B19, polyomaviruses,[134, 135] rotavirus, adenovirus
Solid organ transplant predisposes to infections with the following organisms[136] :
P jirovecii, Toxoplasma species (heart or heart-lung transplant)
Nocardia, Listeria, mycobacteria, other bacteria (early posttransplant)
Respiratory viruses, influenza virus, CMV, VZV, HSV, EBV, BK virus, JC virus, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus[137]
Adenovirus and BK virus after renal transplant
Candida (early posttransplantation period), Aspergillus,[127] Cryptococcus,[138] other molds,[128] endemic fungi, and fungi that cause zygomycosis[139, 131, 130]
Strongyloides species[140]
Obtain a complete blood cell count, chemistry profile, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate or C-reactive protein level. Order other diagnostic tests as directed by the presentation and underlying condition.
Blood cultures may be indicated depending on the patient's illness. Initial and serial cultures might be performed by using samples obtained from peripheral sites and from an access device.
Obtain routine aerobic and anaerobic, fungal, viral, and mycobacterial stains and cultures of samples of various sources or locations: blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), throat, wound, synovial fluid, pleural fluid, peritoneal fluid, genitourinary tract, conjunctiva, nares, or skin. The patient's presenting infection and underlying immunocompromise dictate the tests and samples needed.
Order rapid antigen or molecular testing as appropriate. These may include tests for group A streptococci, pneumococci, C difficile, Cryptococcus species, RSV, influenza virus, adenovirus, parainfluenza, human metapneumovirus, and rotavirus.
Evaluation of numbers and function of B cells includes the following:
Total immunoglobulin levels (IgA, IgM, IgG, IgE)
IgG subclass levels
Isohemagglutinins
Lymphocyte subpopulations (CD19 or CD20)
Antibody production after vaccination (eg, diphtheria, meningococcus, pneumococcus, tetanus, H influenzae)
Evaluation of numbers and function of T cells includes the following:
Lymphocyte subpopulations
Assessment of delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions
Mitogen-stimulation assays
Evaluation of phagocyte numbers and function includes the following:
Absolute neutrophil count (see the Absolute Neutrophil Count calculator)
Numbers of CD11a, CD11b, CD11c, and CD18 beta receptor
Neutrophil oxidative burst (dihydrorhodamine [DHR] fluorescence) or assay for chronic granulomatous disease (formerly nitroblue tetrazolium and Oil red O testing)
Evaluation of complement status includes the following:
Total hemolytic complement (CH50)
Measuring mannose-binding lectin levels has been suggested[46]
Measurements of specific components as needed
Chest radiography may demonstrate infiltrates or other pulmonary disease.[141] Other radiographic studies should be performed as warranted.
Chest radiography or computed tomography of the chest can be used to identify the thymus or lymphoid tissue. Other imaging studies are indicated by the particular immunocompromising conditions and infectious complications.
Table. Empiric Antimicrobials for Common Pathogens in Immunocompromised Children (Open Table in a new window)
Drug |
Adult Dosage |
Pediatric Dosage |
Common Pathogens |
Acyclovir |
5-10 mg/kg intravenously (IV) q8h |
15-45 mg/kg/day IV divided q8h (maximum: 1500 mg/m2/d) |
Herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, varicella zoster virus |
Amphotericin B |
1-1.5 mg/kg IV qd |
Administer as in adults |
Antifungal (Aspergillus, Candida) |
Ampicillin |
3 g IV q6h |
50-200 mg/kg/day divided q6h (maximum: 8 g/day); 300-400 mg/kg/day IV divided q4-6h for meningitis, endocarditis (maximum: 12 g/day) |
Listeria monocytogenes, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, Haemophilus influenzae |
Ampicillin/sulbactam |
3 g IV q6h |
200 mg ampicillin component/kg/day IV divided q6h |
Staphylococcus aureus, L monocytogenes, H influenzae, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella |
Azithromycin |
500-1000 mg IV qd |
10 mg/kg/day IV/PO (orally) qd |
Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex, Legionella pneumophila, Cryptosporidium |
Cefepime |
2 g IV q6h |
100-150 mg/kg/day IV/IM divided q8-12h |
E coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, H influenzae, S pneumoniae |
Cefotaxime (no longer available in the United States) |
8-12 g IV divided q4-6h | 150-180 mg/kg/day IV divided q8h (maximum: 8 g/day); 200-225 mg/kg/day divided q6h for meningitis (maximum: 12 g/day) |
S pneumoniae, E coli, N meningitidis, H influenzae, Klebsiella |
Ceftazidime |
2 g IV q8h |
150 mg/kg/day IV/IM divided q8h; 200-300 mg/kg/day IV divided q8h for suspected Pseudomonas infection |
P aeruginosa, E coli, Klebsiella, N meningitidis, H influenzae, S pneumoniae |
Ceftriaxone |
2 g IV q12h |
100 mg/kg/day IV divided q12h |
S pneumoniae, N meningitidis, H influenzae |
Ciprofloxacin |
400-800 mg/d IV divided q12h |
20-40 mg/kg/day IV divided q12h (maximum: 1.5 g/day) |
P aeruginosa, Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex, L pneumophilia, methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcusaureus (MSSA), Chromobacterium, E coli |
Fluconazole |
400 mg IV q12h |
6-12 mg/kg/day q24h; 800-1000 mg/day for central nervous system infections |
Candida albicans, histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, coccidioidomycosis |
Gentamicin (never use as a single agent) |
3-6 mg/kg/day IV divided q8h |
3-7.5 mg/kg/day IV/IM divided q8-24h |
P aeruginosa, Serratia, Staphylococcus |
| Meropenem | 1-6 g IV q8h | 60-120 mg/kg/day IV divided q8h (maximum: 6 g/day) | Multi-drug resistant bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, P aeruginosa, Serratia, Citrobacter, K pneumoniae |
| Piperacillin/tazobactam | 12-18 g/day of piperacillin IV divided q4-6h | 240-300 mg of piperacillin component/kg/day IV divided q8h | E coli, P aeruginosa, K pneumoniae |
Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole |
20 mg/kg/day IV divided q6-8h; dose calculation is based on trimethoprim component |
Administer as in adults |
Pneumocystis jirovecii, Nocardia, L monocytogenes, Chromobacterium, Burkholderia species, Serratia species, MSSA, toxoplasmosis, E coli, Klebsiella |
Vancomycin |
2-4 g/day IV divided q6-12h |
60 mg/kg/day IV divided q6-8h |
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus |