Necrotizing Enterocolitis Questions & Answers

1. Scmid O, Quaiser K. Uer eine besondere schwere verlaufende Form von enteritis beim saugling. Oesterr Z Kinderh. 1953. 8:114.

2. Berdon WE. Necrotizing enterocolitis in the premature infant. Radiology. 1964. 83:879.

3. Rusconi B, Good M, Warner BB. The microbiome and biomarkers for necrotizing enterocolitis: are we any closer to prediction?. J Pediatr. 2017 Oct. 189:40-7.e2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

4. Patel RM, Underwood MA. Probiotics and necrotizing enterocolitis. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2018 Feb. 27 (1):39-46. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

5. Roze JC, Ancel PY, Lepage P, et al, for the Nutrition EPIPAGE 2 study group and the EPIFLORE Study Group. Nutritional strategies and gut microbiota composition as risk factors for necrotizing enterocolitis in very-preterm infants. Am J Clin Nutr. 2017 Sep. 106 (3):821-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

6. Patel AL, Kim JH. Human milk and necrotizing enterocolitis. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2018 Feb. 27 (1):34-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

7. Hunter CJ, Bean JF. Cronobacter: an emerging opportunistic pathogen associated with neonatal meningitis, sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis. J Perinatol. 2013 Aug. 33(8):581-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

8. Hunter, CJ, Camerini V, Boyle A, et al. Bacterial Flora Enhance Intestinal Injury and Inflammation in the Rat Pup Model of Necrotizing Enterocolitis. Presented at PAS 2007, Toronto: Childrens hospital Los Angeles, CA; 2007.

9. Blackwood BP, Yuan CY, Wood DR, Nicolas JD, Grothaus JS, Hunter CJ. Probiotic Lactobacillus species strengthen intestinal barrier function and tight junction integrity in experimental necrotizing enterocolitis. J Probiotics Health. 2017 Apr. 5 (1):[QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

10. Pickard SS, Feinstein JA, Popat RA, Huang L, Dutta S. Short- and long-term outcomes of necrotizing enterocolitis in infants with congenital heart disease. Pediatrics. 2009 May. 123(5):e901-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].

11. Been JV, Lievense S, Zimmermann LJ, Kramer BW, Wolfs TG. Chorioamnionitis as a risk factor for necrotizing enterocolitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Pediatr. 2013 Feb. 162(2):236-42.e2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

12. Moya FR, Eguchi H, Zhao B, et al. Platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase in term and preterm human milk: a preliminary report. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1994 Aug. 19(2):236-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

13. Book LS, Herbst JJ, Atherton SO, Jung AL. Necrotizing enterocolitis in low-birth-weight infants fed an elemental formula. J Pediatr. 1975 Oct. 87(4):602-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

14. Wan-Huen P, Bateman D, Shapiro DM, Parravicini E. Packed red blood cell transfusion is an independent risk factor for necrotizing enterocolitis in premature infants. J Perinatol. 2013 Oct. 33(10):786-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

15. Maheshwari A, Patel RM, Christensen RD. Anemia, red blood cell transfusions, and necrotizing enterocolitis. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2018 Feb. 27 (1):47-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

16. Bhandari V, Bizzarro MJ, Shetty A, Zhong X, Page GP, Zhang H, et al. Familial and genetic susceptibility to major neonatal morbidities in preterm twins. Pediatrics. 2006 Jun. 117(6):1901-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

17. Moonen RM, Paulussen AD, Souren NY, Kessels AG, Rubio-Gozalbo ME, Villamor E. Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase polymorphisms as a risk factor for necrotizing enterocolitis. Pediatr Res. 2007 Aug. 62(2):188-90. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

18. Franklin AL, Said M, Cappiello CD, et al. Are immune modulating single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with necrotizing enterocolitis?. Sci Rep. 2015 Dec 16. 5:18369. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

19. Treszl A, Heninger E, Kalman A, Schuler A, Tulassay T, Vasarhelyi B. Lower prevalence of IL-4 receptor alpha-chain gene G variant in very-low-birth-weight infants with necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr Surg. 2003 Sep. 38(9):1374-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

20. Young C, Sharma R, Handfield M, Mai V, Neu J. Biomarkers for Infants at Risk for Necrotizing Enterocolitis: Clues to Prevention?. Pediatr Res. 2009 Jan 28. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

21. More K, Athalye-Jape G, Rao S, Patole S. Association of inhibitors of gastric acid secretion and higher incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm very low-birth-weight infants. Am J Perinatol. 2013 Nov. 30(10):849-56. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

22. Terrin G, Passariello A, De Curtis M, et al. Ranitidine is Associated With Infections, Necrotizing Enterocolitis, and Fatal Outcome in Newborns. Pediatrics. 2012 Jan. 129(1):e40-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

23. Shalabi M, Mohamed A, Lemyre B, Aziz K, Faucher D, Shah PS, et al. Antenatal exposure to magnesium sulfate and spontaneous intestinal perforation and necrotizing enterocolitis in extremely preterm neonates. Am J Perinatol. 2017 Oct. 34 (12):1227-33. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

24. Kawase Y, Ishii T, Arai H, Uga N. Gastrointestinal perforation in very low-birthweight infants. Pediatr Int. 2006 Dec. 48(6):599-603. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

25. Kovacs L, Papageorgiou, A. Incidence, Predisposing Factors and Outcome of NEC in Infants <32 Weeks' Gestation. Presented at PAS 2007, Toronto: SMBD-Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal; 2007.

26. Wiswell TE, Robertson CF, Jones TA, Tuttle DJ. Necrotizing enterocolitis in full-term infants. A case-control study. Am J Dis Child. 1988 May. 142(5):532-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

27. Robinson JR, Kennedy C, van Arendonk KJ, Green A, Martin CR, Blakely ML. Neurodevelopmental considerations in surgical necrotizing enterocolitis. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2018 Feb. 27 (1):52-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

28. Brotschi B, Baenziger O, Frey B, Bucher HU, Ersch J. Early enteral feeding in conservatively managed stage II necrotizing enterocolitis is associated with a reduced risk of catheter-related sepsis. J Perinat Med. 2009 Aug 13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

29. McKeown RE, Marsh TD, Amarnath U, et al. Role of delayed feeding and of feeding increments in necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr. 1992 Nov. 121(5 Pt 1):764-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

30. Shorter NA, Liu JY, Mooney DP, Harmon BJ. Indomethacin-associated bowel perforations: a study of possible risk factors. J Pediatr Surg. 1999 Mar. 34(3):442-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

31. Adderson EE, Pappin A, Pavia AT. Spontaneous intestinal perforation in premature infants: a distinct clinical entity associated with systemic candidiasis. J Pediatr Surg. 1998 Oct. 33(10):1463-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

32. Stark AR, Carlo WA, Tyson JE, et al. Adverse effects of early dexamethasone in extremely-low-birth-weight infants. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network. N Engl J Med. 2001 Jan 11. 344(2):95-101. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

33. Sylvester KG, Ling XB, Liu GY, Kastenberg ZJ, Ji J, Hu Z, et al. Urine protein biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of necrotizing enterocolitis in infants. J Pediatr. 2014 Mar. 164(3):607-612.e7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

34. Bohnhorst B. Usefulness of abdominal ultrasound in diagnosing necrotising enterocolitis. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2013 Sep. 98(5):F445-50. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

35. Deeg KH, Rupprecht T, Schmid E. Doppler sonographic detection of increased flow velocities in the celiac trunk and superior mesenteric artery in infants with necrotizing enterocolitis. Pediatr Radiol. 1993. 23(8):578-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

36. Harding A. Slow feeding helps prevent necrotizing enterocolitis in smallest preemies. Reuters Health. October 27, 2014. Available at http://www.pediatricsconsultant360.com/story/slow-feeding-helps-prevent-necrotizing-enterocolitis-smallest-preemies. Accessed: November 1, 2014.

37. Viswanathan S, McNelis K, Super D, Einstadter D, Groh-Wargo S, Collin M. A Standardized Slow Enteral Feeding Protocol and the Incidence of Necrotizing Enterocolitis in Extremely Low Birth Weight Infants. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2014 Oct 14. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

38. Kapoor V, Glover R, Malviya MN. Alternative lipid emulsions versus pure soy oil based lipid emulsions for parenterally fed preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Dec 2. 12:CD009172. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

39. Hoyos AB. Reduced incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis associated with enteral administration of Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium infantis to neonates in an intensive care unit. Int J Infect Dis. 1999. 3(4):197-202. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

40. Alfaleh K, Anabrees J, Bassler D. Probiotics Reduce the Risk of Necrotizing Enterocolitis in Preterm Infants: A Meta-Analysis. Neonatology. 2009 Aug 25. 97(2):93-99. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

41. Olsen R, Greisen G, Schrøder M, Brok J. Prophylactic probiotics for preterm infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Neonatology. 2015 Dec 2. 109 (2):105-112. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

42. Sharma D, Shastri S. Lactoferrin and neonatology - role in neonatal sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis: present, past and future. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2016 Mar. 29 (5):763-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

43. Pammi M, Abrams SA. Oral lactoferrin for the prevention of sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Oct 5. CD007137. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

44. Haque KN, Pammi M. Pentoxifylline for treatment of sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis in neonates. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Oct 5. CD004205. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

45. Drucker NA, McCulloh CJ, Li B, Pierro A, Besner GE, Markel TA. Stem cell therapy in necrotizing enterocolitis: current state and future directions. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2018 Feb. 27 (1):57-64. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

46. McCulloh CJ, Olson JK, Wang Y, Vu J, Gartner S, Besner GE. Evaluating the efficacy of different types of stem cells in preserving gut barrier function in necrotizing enterocolitis. J Surg Res. 2017 Jun 15. 214:278-85. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

47. McCulloh CJ, Olson JK, Zhou Y, Wang Y, Besner GE. Stem cells and necrotizing enterocolitis: a direct comparison of the efficacy of multiple types of stem cells. J Pediatr Surg. 2017 Jun. 52 (6):999-1005. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

48. Vaughan WG, Grosfeld JL, West K, Scherer LR 3rd, Villamizar E, Rescorla FJ. Avoidance of stomas and delayed anastomosis for bowel necrosis: the 'clip and drop-back' technique. J Pediatr Surg. 1996 Apr. 31(4):542-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

49. Martin LW, Neblett WW. Early operation with intestinal diversion for necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr Surg. 1981 Jun. 16(3):252-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

50. Ein SH, Marshall DG, Girvan D. Peritoneal drainage under local anesthesia for perforations from necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr Surg. 1977 Dec. 12(6):963-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

51. Moss RL, Dimmitt RA, Barnhart DC, Sylvester KG, Brown RL, Powell DM, et al. Laparotomy versus peritoneal drainage for necrotizing enterocolitis and perforation. N Engl J Med. 2006 May 25. 354(21):2225-34. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

52. Premkumar MH, Carter BA, Hawthorne KM, King K, Abrams SA. High rates of resolution of cholestasis in parenteral nutrition-associated liver disease with fish oil-based lipid emulsion monotherapy. J Pediatr. 2013 Apr. 162(4):793-798.e1. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

53. Lucas A, Cole TJ. Breast milk and neonatal necrotising enterocolitis. Lancet. 1990 Dec 22-29. 336(8730):1519-23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

54. Eyal F, Sagi E, Arad I, Avital A. Necrotising enterocolitis in the very low birthweight infant: expressed breast milk feeding compared with parenteral feeding. Arch Dis Child. 1982 Apr. 57(4):274-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

55. Chowning R, Radmacher P, Lewis S, Serke L, Pettit N, Adamkin DH. A retrospective analysis of the effect of human milk on prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis and postnatal growth. J Perinatol. 2015 Dec 3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

56. Berseth CL. Effect of early feeding on maturation of the preterm infant's small intestine. J Pediatr. 1992 Jun. 120(6):947-53. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

57. Meetze WH, Valentine C, McGuigan JE, et al. Gastrointestinal priming prior to full enteral nutrition in very low birth weight infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1992 Aug. 15(2):163-70. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

58. Rayyis SF, Ambalavanan N, Wright L, Carlo WA. Randomized trial of "slow" versus "fast" feed advancements on the incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight infants. J Pediatr. 1999 Mar. 134(3):293-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

59. Kennedy KA, Tyson JE, Chamnanvanakij S. Rapid versus slow rate of advancement of feedings for promoting growth and preventing necrotizing enterocolitis in parenterally fed low-birth-weight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000. (2):CD001241. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

60. [Guideline] Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center. Evidence-based care guideline for necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) among very low birth weight infants. Cincinnati (OH): Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center; 2007 Feb.

61. Young TE, Mangum B. Neofax. Twenty-first edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Reuters; 2008.

62. Alfaleh K, Bassler D. Probiotics for prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008 Jan 23. CD005496. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

63. Bin-Nun A, Bromiker R, Wilschanski M, et al. Oral probiotics prevent necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight neonates. J Pediatr. 2005 Aug. 147(2):192-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

64. Carlson K, Schy RB, Jilling T, Lu J, Caplan MS. The Two Probiotic strains, L acidophilus and S thermophilus, down-regulate Toll-like Receptor 4 Expression in Enterocytes. Presented at PAS Toronto, 2007: Evanston Northwestern Hospital, IL; 2007.

65. Dani C, Biadaioli R, Bertini G, Martelli E, Rubaltelli FF. Probiotics feeding in prevention of urinary tract infection, bacterial sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants. A prospective double-blind study. Biol Neonate. 2002 Aug. 82(2):103-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

66. Hammerman C, Bin-Nun A, Kaplan M. Germ warfare: probiotics in defense of the premature gut. Clin Perinatol. 2004 Sep. 31(3):489-500. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

67. Lin HC, Su BH, Chen AC, et al. Oral probiotics reduce the incidence and severity of necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics. 2005 Jan. 115(1):1-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

68. Millar M, Wilks M, Costeloe K. Probiotics for preterm infants?. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2003 Sep. 88(5):F354-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

69. Lin HC, Hsu CH, Chen HL, et al. Oral probiotics prevent necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight preterm infants: a multicenter, randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics. 2008 Oct. 122(4):693-700. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

70. Alfaleh K, Anabrees J, Bassler D, Al-Kharfi T. Probiotics for prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Mar 16. 3:CD005496. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

71. Hand L. NICU: Probiotics Reduce NEC, Should Be Routine, Experts Say. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/820814. Accessed: February 24, 2014.

72. Janvier A, Malo J, Barrington KJ. Cohort Study of Probiotics in a North American Neonatal Intensive Care Unit. J Pediatr. 2014 Jan 7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

73. Tarnow-Mordi W, Soll RF. Probiotic Supplementation in Preterm Infants: It Is Time to Change Practice. J Pediatr. 2014 Feb 8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

74. Groer MW, Gregory KE, Louis-Jacques A, Thibeau S, Walker WA. The very low birth weight infant microbiome and childhood health. Birth Defects Res C Embryo Today. 2015 Dec 10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

Shelley C Springer, JD, MD, MSc, MBA, FAAP Professor, University of Medicine and Health Sciences, St Kitts, West Indies; Clinical Instructor, Department of Pediatrics, University of Vermont College of Medicine; Clinical Instructor, Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health

Shelley C Springer, JD, MD, MSc, MBA, FAAP is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

David J Annibale, MD Professor of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina College of Medicine; Director of Neonatology, Director of Fellowship Training Program in Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, MUSC Children's Hospital

David J Annibale, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, National Perinatal Association

Disclosure: Editorial staff for AAP NeoREVIEWS PLUS (includes reimbursement for meeting expecnses and $300 honorarium; Advisory meetings for the National Certification Corp. development of a QI certification test. (includes all expenses without honorarium) for: American Academy of Pediatrics, National Certification Corp.

Muhammad Aslam, MD Professor of Pediatrics, University of California, Irvine, School of Medicine; Neonatologist, Division of Newborn Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, UC Irvine Medical Center

Muhammad Aslam, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Robert S Bloss, MD Clinical Associate Professor of Surgery and Pediatrics, University of Texas Medical School; Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine; Consulting Staff, Houston Pediatric Surgeons

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Li Ern Chen, MD Fellow, Pediatric Surgery, Children's Hospital of Wisconsin, Medical College of Wisconsin

Li Ern Chen, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College of Surgeons, and Sigma Xi

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David A Clark, MD Chairman, Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Albany Medical College

David A Clark, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Pediatrics, American Pediatric Society, Christian Medical & Dental Society, Medical Society of the State of New York, New York Academy of Sciences, and Society for Pediatric Research

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Diana Farmer, MD Associate Professor, Departments of Clinical Surgery, Pediatrics, Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Services, Division of Pediatric Surgery and the Fetal Treatment Center, University of California at San Francisco

Diana Farmer, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Surgeons, and American Pediatric Surgical Association

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Philip Glick, MD, MBA Professor, Departments of Surgery, Pediatrics, and Gynecology and Obstetrics, Vice-Chairperson for Finance and Development, Department of Surgery, State University of New York at Buffalo

Philip Glick, MD, MBA is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Surgeons, American Medical Association, American Pediatric Surgical Association, American Thoracic Society, Association for Academic Surgery, Association for Surgical Education, Central Surgical Association, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, Medical Society of the State of New York, Phi Beta Kappa, Physicians for Social Responsibility, Royal College of Surgeons of England, Sigma Xi, Society for Pediatric Research, Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract, Society of Critical Care Medicine, and Society of University Surgeons

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Andre Hebra, MD Chief, Division of Pediatric Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina; Professor of Surgery and Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina

Andre Hebra, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Surgeons, American Medical Association, American Pediatric Surgical Association, Association for Academic Surgery, Society of Laparoendoscopic Surgeons, South Carolina Medical Association, Southeastern Surgical Congress, and Southern Medical Association

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Oussama Itani, MD, FAAP, FACN Clinical Associate Professor of Pediatrics and Human Development, Michigan State University; Medical Director, Department of Neonatology, Borgess Medical Center

Oussama Itani, MD, FAAP, FACN is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Nutrition, American College of Physician Executives, and American Heart Association

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Robert K Minkes, MD, PhD Professor of Surgery, University of Texas Southwestern; Chief of Surgical Services, Children's Medical Center of Dallas-Legacy

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Tapash K Palit, MD Assistant Professor of Surgery, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans

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